GIFT   OF 


Agrir-Dept.   /Main  14E 


MILK  -  AH 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


ON   THE 


EXAMINATION  OF  MILK  AND  ITS  DERIVATIVES, 
CEEAM,  BUTTER,  AND  CHEESE. 


J,  ALFRED  WANKLYN,  M.B.C.S., 

CORRFSPONDING  MEMBER   OF  THE   ROYAL   BAVARIAN   ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES; 
PUBLIC   ANALYST   FOR   BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,    BUCKING 
HAM,    ANG  HIGH   WYCOMBE. 


NEW  YORK: 
D.   VAN   NOSTRAND,    PUBLISHER, 


23  MURRAY  AND  27  WARREN  STBKET. 


1874. 


PREFACE. 


DURING  the  year  1871  I  devoted  much  attention 
to  the  subject  of  milk-analysis,  and,  besides 
making  many  hundreds  of  analyses  of  milk 
purchased  in  different  parts  of  London  for  the 
Milk  Journal,  was  employed  by  Government 
in  an  investigation  into  the  milk  supplied  to 
the  Metropolitan  Workhouses.  I  have  likewise 
examined  the  milk  supplied  to  the  Hospitals  in 
London. 

In  the  course  of  this  work,  I  have  been 
fortunate  enough  to  make  some  improvements 
in  the  art  of  milk-analysis,  and,  in  particular, 
some  little  modifications  in  the  taking  of  milk- 
residues,  so  as  to  tranfer  such  determinations 
(which  before  were  tedious  and  uncertain)  into 
the  list  of  the  simplest  and  most  exact  of  chemi 
cal  analyses.  At  the  present  time,  when  a  new 

258079 


PREFACE. 


class  of  men  has  been  constituted  to  watch  over 
the  food  of  the  country,  there  is  need  for  special 
manuals  of  this  description. 


LONDON,  November,  1873. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I.  PAQB- 

INTRODUCTORY — MILK,  ITS  NATURE  AND  CHEMICAL  COMPOSI 
TION — DESCRIPTION  OF  EACH  OF  ITS  CONSTITUENTS — CON 
STANCY  OF  ITS  COMPOSITION, 1 

CHAPTER  II. 

INSTRUMENTS  AND  METHODS  FOR  TESTING   MILK — OUTLINE  OF 

METHOD  OF  MILK-ANALYSIS, 8 

CHAPTER  III. 
MILK-SOLIDS, 14 

CHAPTER  IT. 

THE  FAT, 20 

CHAPTER  V. 

CASEINE, .24 

CHAPTER  VI. 

MILK-SUGAR, 27 

CHAPTER  VII. 
ASH, 29 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

CALCULATION  AND  STATEMENT  OF  RESULTS,  .  .  .  .31 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  MILK  SUPPLY  OF  THE   LONDON  WORK -HOUSES,      ...      34 


6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  X. 

CREAM, 47 

CHAPTER  XI. 

BUTTER, 63 

CHAPTER  XII. 

CHEESE, 58 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

KOUMISS, 60 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

CONDENSED  AND  PRESERVED  MILK, 63 

CHAPTER  XV. 

POISONOUS  MILK  AND  MILK-PANICS, 65 


MILK  -  ANALYSIS. 


CHAPTEE    I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

MILK,  which  is  the  secretion  of  the  mammary  glands,  and 
constitutes  the  entire  food  and  drink  of  the  young  mammal, 
is  an  aqueous  solution  of  caseine,  milk-sugar,  and  small 
quantities  of  mineral  material,  and  holds  in  suspension  a 
quantity  of  fat  in  a  state  of  fine  subdivision. 

The  milk  of  the  cow,  to  which  we  will  confine  our  atten 
tion  in  this  work,  has  been  analyzed  at  various  times  by 
many  chemists.  My  own  analyses,  which  are  among  the 
most  recent,  are  as  follows  : — 

In  100  cubic  centimetres  of  average  country  milk  I 
found — 


Water     . 
Fat 

Caseine  . 
Milk-sugar 
Ash 


90.09  grammes. 
3.16 

4,16  " 
4.76  " 
0.73  «  ' 


102.90 


8 


MILK-ANALYSIS. 


Town-fed  milk  is  a  little  richer.   According  to  my  analysis, 
it  contains  in  100  cubic  centimetres  — 

Water     .  ..".- 


Caseine  . 
Milk-sugar 
Ash        . 


102.90 


I  have  likewise  made  an  analysis  of  the  milk  of  the  Alder- 
ney  cow,  which,  notwithstanding  the  popular  prejudice  in 
its  favor,  as  will  be  seen,  does  not  much  differ  from  other 
milk.  I  found  in  100  cubic  centimetres  of  such  milk — 

"Water     .  '»•  -„-  V  89.88  grammes. 

Fat         .    .  .  .  .          3.31 

Caseine  .  ,  .  .  4.75         " 

Milk-sugar  .  .  :-.  4.24         '• 
Ash 


The  water  which  enters  into  the  constitution  of  milk  may 
be  extracted  from  it  by  evaporation,  and,  that  having  been 
done,  there  will  remain  behind  the  milk  solids,  which  consist 
of  the  fat,  caseine,  milk-sugar,  and  ash  (or  mineral  matters) 
conjointly. 

The  fat  exists  in  milk  in  the  form  of  very  minute  globules. 
It  is  not  a  single  chemical  substance,  but  a  mixture  of  chemi 
cal  substances.  It  consists  of  olein,  palmitin,  stearin,  and 
small  quantities  of  butyrin  and  other  fats.  All  these  differ 
ent  fatty  substances  are  ethers  of  glycerine,  and  are  capable 
of  yielding  glycerine  when  digested  with  alkalies,  yielding  as 


INTRODUCTORY.  9 

the  same  time  the  corresponding  alkaline  salt.  Thus  when 
the  fat  of  milk  is  digested  with  potash  or  soda,  it  furnishes 
glycerine,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  oleate,  palmitate, 
stearate,  and  butyrate  of  potash  or  soda.  The  fat  of  milk  is 
hard  at  winter  temperatures,  and  soft  at  summer  temperatures 
(its  fusing  point  lying,  in  fact,  at  such  temperatures  as  are 
reached  in  summer).  Fat  is  distinguished  from  the  other 
solid  constituents  of  milk  by  being  soluble  in  ether. 

Caseine. — This  is  the  nitrogenous  constituent  of  milk.  In 
regard  to  this  portion  of  the  milk,  the  remark  should  first  be 
made  that  it  is  not  perfectly  homogeneous — that  is  to  say, 
there  are  at  least  two  distinct  chemical  substances  comprised 
by  the  nitrogenous  portion  of  milk. 

There  is  caseine  proper,  and  also  albumen — that  is  to  say, 
a  certain  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  substance  is  coagu 
lated  on  boiling  milk,  but  the  major  part  of  the  nitrogenous 
substance  is  not  coagulated  on  boiling.  Whether  the  portion 
of  nitrogenous  substance  which  is  not  coagulated  on  boiling 
is  itself  homogeneous,  is  even  a  matter  of  some  doubt.  In  a 
corresponding  case— that  of  flour — we  know  that  the  nitro 
genous  constituent  is  a  very  complex  mixture,  and  that,  under 
the  name  of  gluten,  a  whole  tribe  of  substances  are  compre 
hended.  Under  the  name  of  caseine  it  will  be  convenient  to 
designate  the  entire  nitrogenous  constituents  of  milk  ;  just 
as,  under  the  name  gluten,  the  entire  nitrogenous  portion  of 
flour  is  comprehended.  Like  albumen,  caseine  exists  under 
two  modifications — it  is  either  soluble  or  insoluble.  In  the 
former  of  these  states  it  exists  in  fresh  milk ;  in  the  latter, 
after  the  milk  has  "turned." 

It  used  to  be  believed  thai  the  soluble  variety  of  caseine 
was  in  reality  a  salt  caseine,  whersin  caseine  played  the  part 
of  acid,  and  the  alkali  naturally  present  in  milk-ash  played 
the  part  of  base.  The  coagulation  or  curdling  of  milk  was 
explained  on  the  supposition  that  lactic  acid,  generated  by 


10  MILK- ANALYSIS. 

incipient  fermentation  of  the  milk-sugar,  decomposed  this 
hypothetical  compound,  and  threw  down  insoluble  caseine. 

This  explanation  must  be  abandoned,  inasmuch  as  inves 
tigation  has  shown  that  the  ash  of  milk  is  almost  absolutely 
devoid  of  alkali.  In  truth,  we  are  driven  to  the  conclusion, 
that  the  change  from  soluble  to  insoluble  caseine  is  molecu 
lar,  resembling  the  change  from  soluble  silica  to  insoluble 
silica. 

The  ultimate  composition  of  caseine  is  not  distinguishable 
from  that  of  albumen  and  fibrine,  viz. — 

Carbon    .  *        .  *  .  *  53.7 

Hydrogen  .         .  .  .  .  7.1 

Nitrogen  .         .  .  .  .  15.7 

Oxygen    .  ....  ..  .  .  23.5 

100.0 

There  is  likewise  a  trace  of  sulphur,  said  to  be  about  one 
per  cent.  In  milk  the  caseine  is  chemically  combined  with 
phosphate  of  lime  ;  and  there  is  no  known  method  of  effect 
ing  a  separation  between  the  two  without  destroying  the 
caseine. 

Milk  is  coagulated — that  is  to  say,  the  caseine  is  rendered 
insoluble — by  the  action  of  rennet,  of  acid,  and  of  many 
metallic  salts. 

Caseine  which  has  become  insoluble  in  water  is  redis- 
solved  by  alkalis,  and  also  by  solution  of  phosphate  of  soda. 

Milk-sugar,  C12H220UH20. — This  substance  may  be  ob 
tained  from  milk  by  coagulating  the  caseine  and  removing 
that  along  with  the  fat,  and  then  evaporating  the  residual 
liquid  (or  whey)  to  crystallization.  The  crystals  are  decol 
orized  by  means  of  animal  charcoal.  It  ia  distinguished 
from  cane-sugar  in  various  ways. 


INTRODUCTORY.  11 

In  composition.  When  dried  at  100°  Cent.,  milk-sugar 
has  the  formula  as  given  above,  viz.,  CjoH^OnHaO;  cane- 
sugar,  on  the  contrary,  when  dried  at  100°  Cent.,  exhibits 
the  composition  Cl2H2iOu.  Heated  to  about  140°  Cent., 
milk-sugar  loses  an  atom  of  water,  and  becomes  C12H220H. 

In  solubility  in  water  there  is  much  difference  between  the 
two.  Milk-sugar  dissolves  in  five  or  six  parts  of  cold  water 
and  in  two  and  a  half  parts  of  boiling  water.  Cane  sugar, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  far  more  soluble.  It  dissolves  in  one 
third  of  its  volume  of  cold  water,  and  in  exceedingly  little 
boiling  water. 

Milk-sugar  is  not  so  heavy  as  cane-sugar,  its  specific 
gravity  being  1.53  ;  whilst  cane-sugar  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.606. 

Towards  alkaline-copper-solution,  the  behavior  of  the 
two  kinds  of  sugar  is  quite  different ;  whereas  milk-sugar 
reduces  the  oxide  to  the  suboxide  of  copper  even  in  the  cold, 
solution  of  cane-sugar  does  not  even  effect  a  reduction  on 
being  heated  to  the  boiling  point  of  water. 

The  Ash,  or  Mineral  Matter. — When  milk  is  dried  up,  and 
the  dried  residue  afterwards  incinerated,  the  ash  remains 
behind.  This  consists  mainly  of  phosphate  of  lime,  which 
forms  about  two-thirds  of  it,  and  of  chlorides.  There  is 
hardly  any  free  or  carbonated  alkali  in  the  ash  of  cow's 
milk.  The  degree  of  freedom  of  the  ash  from  alkali  may 
be  judged  of  from  the  fact,  ascertained  by  myself,  that  the 
ash  does  not  neutralize  as  much  standard  acid  as  it  would  if 
one  hundredth  of  its  weight  consisted  of  alkaline-carbonate. 

Such,  then,  are  the  component  parts  of  milk.  It  remains 
to  be  added,  that  milk  has  a  specific  gravit^of  about  1.029, 
at  15.6  C.,  and  that  its  physical  appearance  is  very  peculiar. 
It  is  not  a  clear  liquid,  being,  in  point  of  fact,  an  emulsion. 
Left  to  itself,  it  by  and  by  becomes  surmounted  with  a 
whitish  layer,  well  known  as  cream .  When  fresh,  it  is  very 


12  MILK- ANALYSIS. 

nearly  neutral  to  test-paper,  but  is  very  apt  to  turn  sour 
from  very  slight  causes. 

Milk  exhibits  great  constancy  of  composition  ;  the  effect  of 
variations  in  the  diet  of  the  cow  showing  itself  in  the  amount 
of  the  secretion  rather  than  in  its  quality.  This  is  very 
strikingly  manifested  on  making  a  comparison  of  the  milk 
yielded  by  the  poor  and  ill-fed  Bengali  cow  in  India  with 
that  given  by  our  own  highly-fed  beasts  in  this  country. 
Dr.  Macnamara's  analyses  of  the  milk  of  the  Bengali  cows 
show  that  it  hardly  differs  from  the  milk  of  English  cows  in 
quality,  whereas  in  quantity  it  differs  greatly,  the  yield  of 
milk  from  the  former  being  a  small  fraction  only  of  that 
from  the  latter.  The  milk  of  an  animal  has  probably  very 
much  the  same  constancy  of  composition  as  the  blood  of  the 
animal.  It  is  well  known  that,  by  administering  water  to  an 
animal,  we  are  not  able  to  dilute  its  blood  to  any  considerable 
extent.  Instead  of  telling  on  the  blood,  the  water  tells  on 
the  perspiration  or  on  the  urine,  so  that  from  containing  four 
or  five  per  cent,  of  solids,  the  urine  may  become  so  dilute  as 
to  contain  only  one  per  cent,  of  solids.  The  milk  resembles 
the  blood  in  this  respect,  and  is  in  contrast  with  the  urine ; 
and  by  giving  an  animal  an  excess  of  water  we  do  not  dilute 
its  milk,  but  its  urine. 

As  will  be  readily  comprehended,  this  constancy  of  com 
position  is  a  cardinal  fact  in  milk  analysis.  If  milk  were 
variable  in  strength,  as  urine  is,  chemical  analysis  would  fail 
to  detect  the  watering  of  milk.  That  milk  is  a  secretion  of 
constant,  or  only  slightly  varying  composition,  lies  at  the 
very  root  of  the  subject  of  this  treatise. 

In  Chapter  ^X.,  on  "  The  Milk  Supply  of  the  London 
Workhouses"  the  experimental  evidence  bearing  upon  this 
question  is  minutely  entered  into. 


CHAPTER  II. 

INSTRUMENTS     AND     METHODS     FOR    TESTING    MILK — OUTLINE 
OF  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

THE  lactometer,  or  lactodensimeter,  as  it  lias  been  called,  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  simple  instrument,  the  cream- 
ometer,  was  at  one  time  a  great  favorite.  In  France,  a  few 
years  ago,  if  not  indeed  now,  the  police  would  take  action 
at  once  on  a  reading  of  that  instrument,  and  turn  milk  out 
into  the  gutter  if  it  were  condemned.  And  in  London,  the 
lactometer  is  exposed  for  sale  in  shop  windows,  and  both  the 
public  and  milk  dealers  trust  to  it.  Even  in  some  recent 
manuals  intended  for  the  guidance  of  medical  officers  of 
health,  the  use  of  the  lactometer  is  recommended.  In  one 
of  them  in  particular — Dr.  Edward  Smith's — which  claims  a 
sort  of  pseudo-government  sanction,  the  lactometer  is  very 
prominently  put  forward,  and  commended  as  being  for  milk 
what  the  hydrometer  is  for  alcoholic  fluids. 

But,  although  it  is  so  very  popular,  and  although  it  has 
been  so  implicitly  trusted,  the  lactometer  is  a  most  untrust 
worthy  instrument.  There  hardly  ever  was  an  instrument 
which  has  so  utterly  failed  as  the  lactometer.  It  confounds 
together  milk  which  is  exceptionally  rich  with  milk  which 
has  been  largely  watered  ;  and  many  a  poor  French  peasant, 
bringing  the  best  and  unadulterated  produce  of  his  dairy  into 
a  French  town,  has  been  ruthlessly  stopped  by  the  police,  who 
have  dipped  their  lactometer  into  the  milk,  and  forthwith 
sent  it  down  the  gutter,  as  if  it  had  been  milk  and  water. 


14  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

Very  curious  things,  too,  are  done  in  this  country  by  reason 
of  trust  in  the  lactometer.  There  is  a  prison  not  far  from 
London,  and  the  prison  authorities  are  specially  particular 
about  their  supply  of  milk.  They  allow  no  milk  to  enter  the 
prison  unless  it  comes  up  to  the  M.  mark  on  a  certain  lac 
tometer.  The  M.  mark  is  pitched  very  high,  and  the  milk 
purveyor  reaches  the  M.  mark  by  skimming  the  milk. 

A  very  littlo  consideration  will  suffice  to  make  intelligible 
the  obliquity  of  the  indications  of  the  lactometer,  and  to  show 
how  untrustworthy  it  must  be.  The  lactometer,  as  of  course 
will  be  understood,  is  simply  the  hydrometer  applied  to  milk ; 
and  readings  of  the  instrument  are  neither  more  nor  less 
than  specific  gravities.  The  more  milk-sugar  and  caseine 
and  mineral  matter  there  is  in  a  given  specimen  of  milk,  the 
greater  (other  things  being  equal)  will  be  its  density  or 
specific  gravity,  and  the  higher  the  lactometer  reading. 

If,  however,  fat  globules  (as  happens  in  the  instance  of 
milk)  be  diffused  through  the  fluid,  then,  because  fat  is 
lighter  than  water,  the  effect  of  the  other  milk  solids  on  the 
gravity  of  the  liquid  will  be  more  or  less  neutralized.  The 
density  of  milk-fat  is  about  0.9,  water  being  1.0.  Now,  if  a 
solution  of  caseine  and  milk-sugar,  of  specific  gravity  1.030, 
be  sufficiently  charged  with  fat  globules,  its  specific  gravity 
may  be  sent  down  even  below  the  gravity  of  water.  How 
much  would  be  required  to  bring  about  such  a  result  is  a 
matter  of  simple  calculation. 

This  being  understood,  it  will  be  obvious,  that  if  the  speci 
mens  of  milk  differ  in  specific  gravity,  there  must  be  two 
distinct  and  equally  valid  ways  of  accounting  for  the  differ 
ence.  The  milk  with  the  lower  gravity  may  be  milk  let 
down  with  water,  or  let  down  with  fat,  i.  e.,  niilk  let  down 
by  being  enriched. 

By  way  of  example,  I  would  just  refer  to  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  so-called  strippings,  which  are  the  last  portions 


OUTLINE    OF    MILK- ANALYSIS.  15 

of  milk  wrung  out  of  the  udder  at  the  termination  of  the 
milking.  These  are  richer  in  cream  than  the  average  mass 
of  the  milk,  and  they  have  a  much  lower  density  than 
average  milk. 

I  have  myself  examined  strippings  with  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.020,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  1.025  is  by  no  means  un 
common.  In  the  instance  of  strippings  of  the  latter  gravity, 
I  found  the  percentage  of  solids  to  be  18.74. 

Now,  if  we  all  knew  concerning  a  sample  of  milk  was  that 
its  gravity  was  1.025,  we  might  with  equal  reasonableness 
conclude,  either  that  it  contained  fifteen  or  twenty  per  cent, 
of  extraneous  water,  or  that  it  was  surcharged  with  cream. 

If,  by  adding  fat  to  milk,  the  specific  gravity  is  lowered,  it 
follows  that  by  substracting  fat  (i.  e.,  by  skimming),  the 
specific  gravity  is  raised ;  and  hence  the  explanation  of  the 
reaching  of  the  high  M.  mark  by  skimming. 

A  certain  trick  of  the  milk  trade  is  fostered  by  the  employ 
ment  of  the  lactometer.  The  milk  is  partially  denuded  *of 
cream  (accomplished  conveniently  by  adding  a  certain  quan 
tity  of  skimmed  milk  to  the  fresh  milk),  and  thereby  raised 
in  gravity.  That  being  accomplished,  it  is  dosed  with  water, 
and  its  gravity  is  thereby  lowered  to  the  normal  standard. 

Let  no  one  think  that  he  would  discover  such  a  trick  by 
making  an  estimation  of  cream ;  for  watered  milk  throws 
up  its  fat  in  the  form  of  cream  more  perfectly  than  un watered 
milk. 

Another  objection  relative  to  the  lactometer  (which,  how 
ever,  pertains  to  the  application  of  the  hydrometer  to  organic 
fluids  generally)  is  drawn  from  the  circumstance  that  a  com 
paratively  small  change  in  density  corresponds  to  a  great 
change  in  composition.  Making  total  abstraction  of  the 
difficulty  and  uncertainty  dependent  on  the  cream,  and  re 
garding  milk  as  a  solution  of  caseine  and  milk-sugar,  it  will 
be  seen  that  whereas  the  specific  gravity  of  water  rises  only 


16  MILK- ANALYSIS. 

from  1.000  to  1.032  in  passing  into  milk,  the  water  receives 
9.2  per  cent,  of  milk  solids.  In  other  words,  while  the 
density  goes  up  only  three  per  cent.,  the  solids  go  up  nine 
per  cent.  It  is,  therefore,  disadvantageous  to  estimate  rise 
in  solid  content  by  rise  in  density.  Mineral  substances, 
when  they  dissolve  in  water,  raise  the  density  far  more 
rapidly  than  organic  substances.  The  contrast  in  this  re 
spect  is  very  well  shown  when  chloride  of  potassium  is  com 
pared  with  milk  solids.  Thus,  a  ten  per  cent,  solution  of 
chloride  of  potassium  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.065  at  15° 
Cent.,  whereas  a  ten  per  cent,  solution  of  caseine  and  milk- 
sugar  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.035. 

To  be  of  any  value  at  all,  a  specific  gravity  determination 
in  the  case  of  such  a  fluid  as  milk  must  be  taken  with  ex 
treme  accuracy  ;  and,  as  is  well  known,  the  taking  of  specific 
gravities  with  great  accuracy  is  not  by  any  means  one  of  the 
most  facile  of  operations,  and  is  certainly  not  easier  than  the 
taking  of  solid  residues  directly. 

From  a  careful  consideration  of  the  whole  subject,  I  am 
convinced  that  one  of  the  most  necessary  steps  to  be  taken 
in  milk  analysis  is  to  abandon  the  use  of  the  lactom 
eter. 

The  creamometer  is  a  graduated  tube,  in  which  milk  is 
allowed  to  stand  and  throw  up  cream,  the  volume  of  which 
is  afterwards  to  be  read. 

It  is,  of  course,  unnecessary  for  the  graduation  to  be 
continued  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  tube.  If  the 
graduation  be  prolonged  only  for  the"  uppermost  fifteen  per 
cent.,  that  will  be  amply  sufficient  for  all  practical  pur 
poses — vide  fig. 

Normal  milk  yields  about  ten  per  cent,  of  cream ;  but 
that  is  subject  to  great  irregularity,  and  a  milk  may  yield 
very  much  less  without  having  been  tampered  with,  or  it 
may  yield  the  ten  per  cent.,  and,  nevertheless,  have  been 


OUTLINE    OF    MILK-ANALYSIS. 


17 


tampered  with.     As  will  be  explained  in  the  chapter  de 
voted  to  cream,  that  fluid  is  subject  to  great  variations  in 
richness.      The  creamometer  is  at  best  a  treacherous  guide. 
In    addition    to    the    lactometer    and    the 
creamometer,  there  is  likewise  an  instrument, 
II    the  indications  of  which  depend  upon  the  de 
gree  of  opacity  produced  by  the  fat  globules. 
It  is  an  instrument  which  I  have  never  tried, 
and  which,  indeed,  does  not  promise  much. 

The  only  really  safe  and  satisfactory  manner 
of  examining  milk  is  by  means  of  an  analysis 
of  it.  This  used  to  be  considered  a  long  and 
tedious,  and  little  satisfactory  operation.  By 
the  aid  of  a  few  simple  devices,  milk  analysis 
may  be  very  much  simplified.  The  first  step 
to  be  taken  is  to  determine  the  milk  solids, 
and,  of  course,  the  water,  which  is  the  differ 
ence  between  the  solids  and  the  quantity  of 
milk  which  yields  them.  The  detail  of  this 
operation  will  be  given  in  next  chapter.  After 
having  determined  the  milk  solids,  the  fat  is 
next  to  be  determined.  If  the  amount  of  fat 
be  subtracted  from  the  amount  of  milk  solid?,  the  amount  of 
"  solids  not  fat"  will  be  arrived  at.  A  knowledge  of  this 
datum  is  (as  will  be  explained)  sufficient  to  enable  a  judg 
ment  to  be  come  to  as  to  whether  or  not  the  sample  of  milk 
has  been  watered. 

As  a  rule,  an  examination  of  milk,  which  has  proceeded 
thus  far,  is  complete.  If  only  watering  or  skimming,  or 
both,  had  taken  place,  the  examination  would  have  been 
ample. 

The  determinations  of  caseine  and  of  milk-sugar  are  use 
ful  when  the  question  arises  of  other  possible  adulteration. 
The  determination  of  ash  is  made  with  a  view  of  ascertaining 


18  MILK- ANALYSIS. 

the  presence  of  extraneous  mineral  matter.  It  has  the  merit 
of  being  very  easy  of  execution.  A  highly-watered  milk 
will  obviously,  as  one  of  its  characters,  show  too  low  an  ash. 
In  the  following  chapters  we  shall  describe  in  detail  the 
method  of  arriving  at  each  of  these  data. 


CHAPTER    III. 

MILK-SOLIDS. 

THE  first  step  in  dealing  with  a  sample  of  milk  is  to  insure 
that  it  is  thoroughly  mixed  up.  This  is  most  conveniently 
done  by  pouring  it  from  one  vessel  to  another ;  and  it  is 
essential  to  attend  to  this  particular  in  order  to  avoid  getting 
either  too  much  or  too  little  cream — that  is  to  say,  either  a 
greater  or  less  proportion  than  the  sample  really  contains. 
It  is  also  well,  in  this  preliminary  stage  of  the  inquiry,  to 
make  out  whether  the  milk  be  sour  or  not,  and  whether  or 
not  it  be  curdled.  If  very  sour,  there  is  of  course  a  chance 
of  destruction  of  some  of  the  organic  material,  and  the  de 
gree  of  acidity  in  such  a  case  ought  to  be  measured  by  means 
of  standard  solution  of  alkali.  If  the  milk  be  curdled,  care 
will  also  have  to  be  taken  to  avoid  an  unequal  distribution 
of  the  caseine ;  and  in  cases  of  this  kind,  I  do  not  like  to  use 
the  pipette  for  measuring  off  the  quantity  of  milk,  but  I  pre 
fer  to  weigh  out  the  quantity  of  milk  taken  for  analysis. 


Assuming  that  the  milk  is  fresh  and  in  good  condition,  it 
may  be  measured  in  a  small  pipette — vide  fig. 

The  quantity  taken  for  analysis  is  five  cubic  centimetres. 
Pipettes  for  the  discharge  of  5  c.  c.  may  be  purchased  of 
Messrs.  Townson  &  Mercer,  who  supply  them  graduated  very 
satisfactorily.  The  pipette  should  be  accurate,  within  y^  of  a 
cubic  centimetre;  and  should  be  tested  by  being  charged  with 


20  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

water,  and  discharged  into  a  counterpoised  beaker  or  flask, 
which,  with  its  contents,  is  to  be  weighed.  The  discharged  water 
should  not  differ  from  5  grammes  by  more  than  0.02  grammes. 
In  order  to  be  able  to  take  milk-solids,  the  experimenter 
requires — 

1.  A  balance. 

2.  Small  platinum  dishes. 

3.  Water  bath. 

4.  Pipette. 

If  a  good  chemical  balance  and  weights  be  at  hand,  so 
much  the  better.  If  not,  and  the  question  arise  relative  to 
the  least  practicable  expenditure  in  the  matter  of  balance, 
the  following  information  may  possibly  be  acceptable. 

I  have  seen  a  balance  made  by  Becker  &  Sons,  of  New 
York,  and  Kruiskady,  Rotterdam,*  which  indicates  two  milli 
grammes  quite  distinctly  when  loaded  with  fifty  grammes,  and 
which  costs  £2.  This  balance,  which  is  No.  14  on  Messrs. 
Becker  &  Sons'  published  catalogue,  will  answer  very  well. 
For  weights,  it  is  essential  to  have  a  good  set,  and  the  box 
costing  80s.  will  be  required. 

If  5  c.  c.  of  milk  be  taken,  it  will  be  obvious  that  an  error 
of  five  milligrammes  equals  0.1  gramme  per  100  c.  c. ;  and 
with  a  balance  and  weights  and  pipette,  such  as  just  men 
tioned,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  determina 
tions  of  residue  which  are  not  more  than  a  few  hundredths 
per  cent,  off  the  truth.  The  evaporation  to  dryness  is  most 
conveniently  performed  in  a  small  platinum  dish  weighing 
some  twelve  grammes,  and  of  the  size  figured. 

If  there  be  many  milks  to  examine,  it  will  be  well  to  have 
a  set  of  the  little  dishes  (which  cost  14s.  a  piece,  and  which 
are  numbered  on  the  lip).  The  dishes  are  to  be  cleaned  and 

*  Mr.  Henry  Gillman,  143  Brecknock  Road,  London,  N.,  is  sole 
agent  in  England. 


MILK-SOLIDS.  21 

weighed,  and  the  weights  noted  down ;  they  will  alter  in 
weight  only  very  slowly,  and  even  if  in  active  use,  require 
reweighing  only  every  now  and  then. 


The  dishes  are  conveniently  heated  in  an  oblong  copper 
bath,  with  round  holes  cut  in  the  top  to  receive  them.  The 
bath  should  be  some  six  inches  deep,  and  is  charged  with 
water.  It  is  conveniently  supported  on  a  tripod,  and  heated 
with  a  Bunsen  burner. 

The  dishes  having  been  weighed,  placed  in  order  in  the 
bath,  and  each  one  having  received  its  charge  of  5  c.  c.  of 
milk,  the  water  in  the  bath  is  to  be  made  to  boil  vigorously, 
and  maintained  boiling  for  three  hours.  At  the  expiration  of 
that  period  the  5  c.  c.  of  milk  in  each  dish  will  have  com 
pletely  dried  up.  Each  dish,  with  its  contents,  is  removed 
from  the  bath,  its  outside  is  wiped,  and  itself  and  contents 
forthwith  weighed. 

The  weight  of  the  dish  subtracted  from  the  weight  of  con 
joined  dish  and  contents  leaves  the  weight  of  the  milk-solids 
given  by  the  5  c.  c.  of  milk.  By  multiplying  that  weight  by 
20,  the  yield  from  100  c.  c.  of  milk  is  arrived  at.  If  care  be 
taken  in  this  operation,  results  may  be  obtained  which  differ 
from  one  another  by  only  a  small  figure  in  the  second 
decimal  place  in  percentage. 


22  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

When  I  first  worked  this  process,  I  employed  a  pipette 
which  discharged,  not  5  c.  c.,  but  5  grammes  of  milk,  of 
average  density ;  and  in  that  way  obtained  results  which, 
multiplied  by  20,  expressed  percentage.  I  have,  however, 
come  to  the  conclusion,  that  it  is  better  to  express  the  result, 
not  exactly  in  percentage,  but  in  grammes  yielded  by  100 
c.  c.  of  milk,  and  that  mode  of  statement  I  am  now  in  the 
habit  of  adopting. 

As  before  said,  if  the  milk  be  curdled,  it  is  not  well  to  use 
the  pipette,  and  to  take  the  5  c.  c.,  but  to  weigh  out  an 
irregular  quantity  of  the  milk  (about  5  grammes),  and  dry 
it  up. 

The  following  examples  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  degree 
of  accuracy  easily  attainable  by  this  process. 

A  sample  of  good  country  milk  was  submitted  to  the 
process  four  times,  with  the  following  results : — 

MILK.  MILK-SOLIDS. 

I.  4.969  grammes  gave  .  0.616  grammes. 

II.  5.0105         "          "  .  0.6255         " 

III.  5.007           "          "  .  0.623 

IV.  5.0145         "          "  .  0.626           " 

Expressed  in  percentage,  this  is  equivalent  to — 

MILK.  MILK-SOLIDS. 

100  grammes  gave    .         .         12.40  grammes. 

"  "  "'•'".         12.48         " 

«  «  «  jo  ^_|.         « 

«(          «  «  12.48         " 

and  the  mean,  .         .         12.45         " 


MILK-SOLIDS.  ^O 

A  specimen  of  rich  town-fed  milk  yielded  in  four  experi 
ments — 

MILK.  MILK-SOLIDS. 

I.  5.000  grammes  gave  0.7035  grammes. 

II.  5.004         "  "  0.705  " 

III.  5.000         "          "  0.7025         " 

IV.  5.006         "  "  0.705 

Or  in  percentage — 

MILK.  MILK-SOLIDS. 

100  grammes  gave  .         .         14.07  grammes. 
"          "            "  14.09          " 

"          "  "  14.05          " 

"          "  "  14.08          " 

and  the  mean,  .         .         14.07 

These  are  not  exceptionally  carefully  done,  and  only 
illustrate  the  degree  of  accuracy  which  is  attainable  by  the 
most  ordinary  care. 

In  conclusion,  it  remains  to  add,  that  such  results  are  not 
to  be  expected  if  the  residues  be  weighed  before  the  expiration 
of  the  prescribed  time — viz.,  the  three  hours — and  that  the 
water  in  the  bath  must  be  kept  boiling  vigorously  the  whole 
time.  By  prolonging  the  drying  for  a  second  period  of  three 
hours,  no  sensible  diminution  takes  place  in  the  milk-solids. 

The  employment  of  plaster  of  paris  or  sand  (both  of  which 
have  been  recommended  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  milk 
residues  porous),  is  to  be  avoided.  When  only  five  cubic  cen 
timetres  of  milk  are  taken,  as  has  been  recommended  in  this 
chapter,  it  is  likewise  unnecessary  to  stir  up  the  milk  during 
the  evaporation  and  drying. 


CHAPTEE    IV. 


THE    FAT. 


THE  fat  in  milk  is  estimated  by  dissolving  it  in  ether  (which 
dissolves  it,  but  does  not  dissolve  any  other  constituent  of 
milk),  and  evaporating  the  ethereal  solution  to  dryness,  and 
weighing  the  dried  residue.  It  is  not  practicable  to  apply 
the  ether  directly  to  the  milk  itself,  but  the  ether  must  be 
applied  to  the  dry  milk-solids. 

The  residue  obtained,  as  described  in  last  chapter,  by 
evaporating,  and  drying  up  5  c.  c.  of  milk,  may  be  taken  for 
the  determination  of  the  fat. 

This  residue,  as  will  be  understood,  is  contained  in  a  small 
platinum  dish.  Ether  is  to  be  poured  into  the  dish,  and 
heated  to  the  boiling  point,  and  poured  out  through  a  small 
filter.  This  operation  of  boiling  and  pouring  off  the  ethereal 
solution  must  be  repeated  at  least  three  times,  and  care  is 
required  to  let  none  of  the  fat  make  its  escape  over  the 
bottom  of  the  dish.  The  filter  should  be  large  enough  to 
avoid  the  chance  of  spilling  the  ethereal  solution  as  it  is 
being  poured  on  to  the  filter.  It  is  advisable  to  wash  the 
bottom  of  the  little  platinum  dish  with  ether,  in  order  to 
avoid  all  chance  of  loss.  Attention  must  also  be  paid  to  the 
filter-paper  after  the  ether  has  passed  through  it.  Of  course 
it  will  require  washing  with  ether  ;  and  after  the  residual 
ether  has  evaporated  off,  will  be  found  with  a  little  rim  of  fat 
surmounting  it.  This  is  best  dealt  with  by  cutting  it  off, 
and  macerating  it  with  a  fresh  portion  of  ether,  which  may 
then  be  rapidly  poured  through  a  second  small  filter.  In 


THE    FAT.  25 

order  to  facilitate  the  solution  of  the  fat,  the  milk  residue 
may  be  first  moistened  with  alcohol,  which  will  tend  to  dis 
integrate  it,  and  favor  the  action  of  the  ether  upon  it. 

With  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  ether  employed,  it 
should  be  tolerably  dry ;  but  it  may  be  methylated  ether. 
Of  course  it  should  leave  no  appreciable  residue  when  50  c. 
c.  of  it  are  evaporated  and  dried  in  the  water-bath.  The 
cost  of  such  ether  is  about  16s.  per  gallon,  and  the  cost  of 
the  ether  consumed  in  each  determination  of  fat  is  not  more 
than  twopence.  I  would,  however,  give  the  advice  to  be 
liberal  with  the  ether ;  for  it  is  false  economy  to  ruin  the 
determination  for  the  sake  of  saving  ether. 

As  will  be  apparent  on  trying  practically  to  make  these 
determinations  of  fat,  the  yield  from  5  c.  c.  of  milk  is  rather 
inconveniently  small.  I  prefer  to  take  10  c.  c.  of  milk,  and 
to  evaporate  down  in  a  larger  platinum  dish.  A  dish  capable 
of  holding  40  c.  c.,  which  costs  about  80s.,  will  answer  very 
well.  A  small  platinum  spatula  may  be  inserted  into  the 
milk,  and  used  to  stir  it  up  occasionally  during  the  evapo 
ration.  In  this  instance,  it  is  unnecessary  to  push  the  drying 
of  the  milk-solids  to  completeness,  and  an  hour's  evapora 
tion  in  the  water- bath  is  amply  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 
Just  at  last,  the  milk  residue  should  be  moistened  with 
alcohol  to  soften  it.  The  mode  of  dissolving  out  the  fat  with 
ether,  and  the  passing  of  the  ethereal  solution  through  the 
filter,  and  the  subsequent  treatment  of  the  residual  rim  of 
fat  in  the  filter  paper,  has  been  already  explained. 

The  ethereal  solution  of  fat  having  been  obtained  (and,  by 
the  way,  it  ought  never  to  be  less  than  50  c.  c.),  the  next 
point  to  be  attended  to  is  the  evaporation  of  the  ether,  and 
the  getting  of  the  residue  of  fat. 

In  laboratories  where  there  is  a  platinum  dish  capable  of 
holding  100  c.  c.,  such  as  is  used  in  taking  water  residues, 


26 


MILK-ANALYSIS. 


that  may  be  employed  for  the  purpose  of  containing  the 
solution. 

The  dish  having  been  weighed,  is  charged  with  the 
ethereal  solution,  and  placed  in  warm  water,  whereupon  the 
evaporation  of  the  ether  may  be  made  to  proceed  gently. 
As  the  evaporation  approaches  its  termination,  a  change 
will  be  visible  in  the  aspect  of  the  solution.  It  will  become 
turbid,  owing  to  the  trace  of  water  and  small  quantity  of 


alcohol,  which  gradually  predominate  over  the  ether,  being 
incapable  of  dissolving  the  fat.  When  this  stage  is  reached, 
the  dish  should  be  transferred  to  the  water-bath,  and  heated 
to  100°  0.  After  being  maintained  at  100°  0.  for  a  short 
time,  the  solution  will  again  become  clear,  owing  to  the 
evaporation  of  the  trace  of  water  and  alcohol.  When  this 
clearness  has  come  on,  the  fat  is  dry,  and  the  dish  may  be 
removed  from  the  bath,  wiped,  cooled,  and,  along  with  its 
contents,  weighed.  The  weight  of  the  empty  dish  being 
subtracted,  the  difference  is  the  weight  of  the  fat  yielded  by 
the  milk.  This  multiplied  by  10  or  20,  as  the  case  may  be, 
gives  the  number  of  grammes  of  fat  yielded  by  100  c.  c.  of 
milk. 


THE    FAT.  27 

If  it  be  desired  to  recover  the  ether,  the  evaporation  may 
be  managed  in  a  small  retort — vide  fig. 

In  such  a  case,  the  empty  retort  should  be  first  weighed, 
and  subsequently  the  retort  charged  with  the  dry  fat  is  to 
be  weighed.  It  will  farther  be  necessary  to  send  a  stream 
of  dry  air  through  the  retort  towards  the  end  of  the  opera 
tic  n 

I  do  not,  however,  think  that  a  saving  of  two  or  three 
pence,  the  value  of  the  ether,  is  a  sufficient  inducement  to 
cause  the  analyst  to  complicate  his  apparatus.  The  avoid 
ance  of  disengagement  of  ether  vapor  into  the  laboratory 
may,  however,  under  some  circumstances,  be  a  reason  for 
adopting  an  arrangement  of  this  description. 

In  general,  a  milk  analysis  is  complete  when  milk  solids 
and  fat  have  been  taken.  If  the  latter  be  subtracted  from 
the  former,  a  very  important  datum — viz.,  milk-solids  not 
fat — is  arrived  at.  This  datum,  which  is  the  most  constant 
quantity  in  milk  analysis,  gives,  by  a  very  simple  calcula 
tion,  the  extent  of  watering  to  which  the  milk  has  been 
subjected. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CASEINE. 

UNDER  the  title  of  caseine — perhaps  it  would  be  better  to 
say  crude  caseine — I  mean  to  designate  the  entire  nitroge 
nous  material  of  milk. 

After  the  dry  milk-solids  have  been  got,  and  after  the  fat 
has  been  washed  out  of  them  by  means  of  ether,  as  was  ex 
plained  at  length  in  the  last  chapter,  there  remain  behind  the 
caseine,  the  milk-sugar,  and  the  ash.  By  extracting  with 
strong  alcohol,  and  ultimately  adding  a  little  boiling  water, 
so  as  in  effect  to  extract,  with  very  weak  hot  alcohol,  the 
milk-sugar  and  the  soluble  part  of  the  ash,  i.  e,  the  chlorides, 
will  pass  into  solution.  The  caseine  which  remains  behind 
is  washed  off  the  filter-paper  into  a  little  platinum  dish,  and 
dried  up  in  the  water-bath  till  it  ceases  to  lose  weight.  It 
is  weighed  along  with  the  containing  vessel,  and  then  ig 
nited,  and  the  weight  of  the  vessel  and  adherent  ash  (phos 
phate  of  lime)  subtracted  from  it.  As  has  been  already 
remarked,  the  phosphate  of  lime  exists  really  in  a  state  of 
chemical  combination  with  the  caseine  in  milk.  The  quan 
tity  of  milk  recommended  for  the  estimation  of  fat— viz..  10 
grammes — is  suitable  for  the  determination  of  the  caseine. 
Of  course,  if  the  product  of  the  operation  be  multiplied  by 
10,  the  quantity  of  caseine  yielded  by  100  c.  c.  of  milk  will 
be  arrived  at. 

Another  method  of  procedure,  which  is  very  generally 
recommended,  but  which  I  do  not  like  so  well  as  that  just 
described,  consists  in  taking  a  considerable  quantity  of  milk 


CASEINE.  29 

— say  50  or  100  c.  c.  of  milk — and,  without  any  preliminary 
evaporation  to  dryness,  precipitating  the  caseine,  which  is  to 
be  washed  with  water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  and  then  to  be 
dried  and  weighed.  The  precipitation  is  effected  by  warm 
ing  the  milk,  and  acidulating  it  with  almost  any  common 
acid ;  either  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric,  or  even  ascetic  acid 
will  do.  As  aforesaid,  I  do  not  like  that  modification  so  well 
as  the  one  first  given. 

A  very  different  method  of  determining  caseine  in  milk 
consists  in  measuring  it  by  the  albuminoid  ammonia  which 
it  is  capable  of  furnishing.  This  is  certainly  the  quickest 
process,  and  is  very  satisfactory. 

In  order  to  practise  it,  the  milk  must  first  be  diluted  with 
a  known  volume  of  water,  so  that  one  volume  of  dilute  milk 
may  contain  accurately  y^  of  a  volume  of  milk.  This  is 
conveniently  accomplished  by  measuring  out  with  the  pipette 
10  c.  c.  of  milk,  and  dropping  it  into  the  litre  flask,  which  is 
subsequently  filled  up  to  the  litre  mark.  Or,  of  course,  5 
c.  c.  of  milk  may  be  diluted  to  5 CO  c.  c. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  distilled  water  for  the  purpose, 
inasmuch  as  the  error  introduced  by  ordinary  river  or  town 
water  is  inappreciable.  The  quantity  of  the  diluted  milk 
which  is  required  for  experiment  is  5  or  10  cubic  centimetres, 
equivalent  to  y^  or  TL°ff  of  a  cubic  centimetre  of  real  njilk. 

The  mode  of  operation  is  as  follows  : — 

Ten  grammes  of  solid  potash  and  0.4  gramme  of  crystals 
of  permanganate  of  potash  are  boiled  with  about  half  a  litre 
of  water,  the  whole  being  contained  by  a  retort  provided 
with  a  tubulure,  and  connected  with  a  Liebig's  condenser. 
The  liquid  is  allowed  to  distil,  and  successive  portions  of 
distillate  tested  for  ammonia.  So  soon  as  water  begins  to 
distil  over  in  a  state  of  freedom  from  ammonia,  the  portion  of 
diluted  milk  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  retort  through  the 
tubulure. 


30  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

The  distillates  which  subsequently  come  over  are  charged 
with  the  ammonia  arising  from  the  destruction  of  the 
caseine. 

The  ammonia  is  to  be  measured  by  means  of  the  Nessler 
test,  which  is  now  very  well  known.  The  details  of  the  meas 
urement  of  ammonia  will  be  understood  by  all  persons  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  working  the  water  process  of  Wanklyn, 
Chapman,  and  Smith,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into 
them  here. 

Every  one  part  by  weight  of  caseine  gives,  treated  in  this 
manner,  0,065  part  of  ammonia.  The  yield  of  "  albuminoid 
ammonia  "  from  100  c.  c.  of  genuine  milk  is  0.26  gram 
mes. 

It  is  only  by  persons  who  work  the  ammonia  process  of 
water-analysis,  and  only  in  laboratories  where  arrangements 
are  made  for  that  process,  that  the  convenience  of  this  deter 
mination  of  caseine  will  be  appreciated. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

MILK-STJGAB,. 

AFTER  the  milk-solids  have  been  deprived  of  fat  by  means 
of  ether,  as  explained  in  Chapter  IV.,  they  may  be  made  to 
yield  up  the  milk-sugar,  if  they  be  treated  with  alcohol 
and  hot  water.  This  has  been  explained  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

It  remains  here  to  follow  the  weak  alcoholic  solution  after 
its  pa.ssage  through  the  filter  on  which  the  caseine  had  been 
deposited.  The  solution  is  to  be  evaporated  to  dryness  in  the 
water-bath,  and  the  residue  adherent  to  the  vessel  in  which 
the  evaporation  is  performed,  is  to  be  weighed  along  with 
its  containing  vessel. 

That  having  been  done,  it  is  ignited  gently,  and  the  residue 
on  ignition  subtracted  from  the  total  weight  before  ignition. 
The  difference  is  the  yield  of  milk-sugar.  Multiply  this  by 
10,  and  the  number  of  grammes  of  milk-sugar  yielded  by  100 
cubic  centimetres  of  milk  is  found.  With  some  chemists,  a 
titration  of  nylk-sugar,  by  means  of  copper  solution,  is  in  great 
favor.  For  this  purpose  50  or  60  c.  c.  of  milk  are  gently 
warmed  and  mixed  with  a  little  acetic  acid  in  order  to  pre 
cipitate  the  caseine,  which  is  separated  by  means  of  a  filter. 
The  filtrate  is  used  in  the  titration  in  the  following  manner: — 
It  is  first  diluted  with  nine  times  its  volume  of  water,  so  that 
one  litre  contains  the  milk-sugar  of  100  c.  c.  of  milk.  A 
measured  quantity  of  standard  copper-solution  is  then  placed 
in  a  white  basin,  and  diluted  with  four  times  its  volume  of 
water,  and  heated  to  boiling.  Into  it,  whilst  boiling,  is 


32  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

dropped  the  above-mentionel  diluted  milk,  previously  acid 
ulated  and  filtered.  As  the  dilute  milk  drops  from  a 
burette,  it  instantly  reduces  the  boiling  copper-solution,  which 
deposits  red  oxide  of  copper.  The  dropping  is  to  be  con 
tinued  until  the  boiling  copper-solution  ceases  to  be  reduced — 
until  it  is  exhausted.  The  point  of  exhaustion  is  determined 
roughly,  by  observing  when  the  blue  color  leaves  the  solu 
tion,  and  finely,  by  observing  the  exact  point  at  which 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  ceases  to  strike  a  red  color  with 
the  filtered  solution,  which  must  be  slightly  acidulated  with 
acetic  acid  before  being  tested  with  the  ferrocyanide.  The 
standard  copper-solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving  34.65 
grammes  of  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper  in  200  c.  c.  of 
water.  To  this  solution  is  added  a  solution  made  by  dissolv 
ing  173  grammes  of  double  tartrate  of  potash  and  soda  in 
480  c.  c.  of  caustic  soda  solution,  of  specific  gravity  1.14. 
The  whole  is  diluted  till  it  occupies  the  volume  of  one  litre. 

The  standard  solution,  so  prepared,  is  of  such  a  strength 
that  10  c.  c.  are  equivalent  to  0.067  grammes  of  milk-sugar 
(dry  at  100°  C.) 

I  am  not  in  the  habit  of  using  this  process,  but  without 
doubt  it  is  occasionally  of  value. 


CHAPTEK    VII. 


ASS. 


IF  the  milk- solids  be  ignited,  the  organic  matter  is  de 
stroyed,  and  the  inorganic  matter  or  ash  remains  behind. 
The  operation  is  managed  in  a  very  simple  manner.  The 
small  platinum  dish  containing  the  milk-solids  from  5  c.  c. 
of  milk  is  placed  on  a  small  triangle,  either  of  platinum,  or 
of  iron- wire,  or  of  iron-wire  covered  with  tobacco-pipe.  The 
last  mentioned  is  an  admirable  form  of  support,  and  is  very 
well  known  to  chemists.  The  flame,  either  of  a  spirit-lamp, 
or  of  a  Bunsen  burner,  is  then  made  to  play  upon  the  plati 
num  dish.  By  and  by  the  organic  matter  is  burnt  up,  and 
a  grey  ash  remains  behind.  The  platinum  dish  and  its  con 
tents  are  then  allowed  to  cool,  and  weighed.  After  subtract 
ing  the  weight  of  the  dish,  the  weight  of  the  ash  remains. 
This,  multiplied  by  20,  equals  the  number  of  grammes  of 
ash  or  mineral  matter  contained  by  100  c.  c.  of  milk. 

The  importance  of  a  determination  of  ash  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  the  correctness  of  it  at  once  answers  the  ques 
tion  whether  or  not  the  milk  has  been  adulterated  with 
chalk,  salt,  or  other  inorganic  impurity.  I  have  made  hun 
dreds  of  determinations  of  ash,  and  not  yet  come  across  a 
single  case  of  adulteration  of  this  kind. 

As  will  be  seen  on  looking  back,  the  quantity  of  ash  con 
tained  by  100  c.  c  of  milk  is  between  0.7  and  0.8  grammes. 
Now,  suppose  the  milk  to  be  watered — with,  say  London 
water.  In  such  a  case  the  ash  would  be  diminished,  inas- 


34  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

much  as  100  c.  c.  of  London  water  contains  only  0.03  gram 
mes  of  mineral  matter,  whilst  100  c.  c.  of  milk  contains  0.73 
grammes  of  mineral  matter.  Watering  will,  therefore,  be 
indicated  by  diminished  ash ;  and  in  cases  of  watering,  it  is 
worth  while  to  make  a  careful  determination  of  ash  as  a 
sort  of  confirmatory  test. 


CHAPTEE    VIII. 

CALCULATION     AND     STATEMENT     OF     EESULTS. 

THROUGHOUT  the  foregoing  chapters,  the  mode  of  state 
ment  recommended  has  been  to  reckon  the  milk  by  measure 
in  cubic  centimetres,  and  the  products — the  milk-solids  or 
fat,  &c. — in  grammes.  This  form  of  statement  will  be  found 
to  be  the  most  convenient,  involving,  as  it  does,  the  least 
possible  calculation. 

Occasionally,  however,  as  in  the  case  of  sour  milk,  we  are 
compelled  to  weigh  the  milk  instead  of  measuring  it. 

In  such  a  case,  a  simple  calculation  will  reduce  the  per 
centage  statement  into  a  statement  in  the  prescribed  form, 
i.  e.,  of  how  many  grammes  are  yielded  by  100  c.  c.  of  milk. 
If  the  specific  gravity  of  the  sample  of  milk  be  known,  the 
reduction  consists  in  simply  multiplying  by  the  specific  grav 
ity  ;  if  the  specific  gravity  be  unknown,  the  milk  should  be 
assumed  to  be  of  average  specific  gravity,  viz.,  1.029,  and 
the  calculation  made  accordingly. 

In  milk-analysis  there  are  two  kinds  of  statement  in  use, 
viz ,  percentage  statement — how  much  of  any  constituent  of 
milk  is  contained  by  100  parts  of  milk ;  and  the  other  kind 
of  statement,  how  many  grammes  of  any  constituent  are 
contained  by  100  cubic  centimetres  of  milk.  Inasmuch  as 
100  c.  c.  of  average  milk  weighs  102.9  grammes,  this  second 
statement  approximates  to  a  statement  of  parts  per  102.9 
parts. 

In  the  next  chapter,  which  is  a  reprint  from  the  Chemical 


36  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

News,  the  form  of  statement  is  percentage,  and  the  various 
data  would  be  reduced  to  the  other  measure  by  multiplica 
tion  by  1.029. 

Having  cleared  away  any  confusion  arising  from  this 
slight  difference  in  scale,  we  pass  on  to  consider  the  practical 
use  to  be  made  of  the  various  data  afforded  by  milk-analysis. 

As  will  be  remembered,  100  c.  c.  of  milk  of  average  qual 
ity  contains  12.81  grammes  of  milk-solids.  Very  rich — ex 
ceptionally  rich — stall-fed  milk  contains  14.47  grammes  of 
milk-solids.  Now,  it  must  be  obvious  to  every  one,  that 
very  rich  milk,  let  down  with  a  little  water,  will  stimulate 
milk  of  average  quality. 

There  is  a  certain  limit  below  which  the  milk  of  well-fed 
cows  is  never  known  to  fall.  Below  11.8  grammes  of  solids 
per  100  c.  c.,  milk  has  not  been  known  to  fall. 

The  most  variable  constituent  of  milk  is  the  fat ;  and  if 
the  quantity  of  fat  be  deducted  from  the  milk-solids,  the 
"  milk-solids  not  fat"  which  is  a  very  constant  datum,  is 
obtained.  Taking  the  milk-solids  in  country  milk,  and  de 
ducting  the  fat  from  it,  there  remains  9.65,  which  is  the 
"milk-solids  not  fat."  Similarly,  the  "milk-solids  not  fat" 
in  stall-fed  milk  amount  to  10.35  grammes  per  100  c.  c. 

The  best  way  of  dealing  with  the  question  of  watering  is 
to  assume  a  perfectly  rigid  standard  of  normal  milk,  and  to 
treat  all  departures  from  it  as  sophistications.  Normal 
country  milk  is  of  such  a  strength,  that  100  c.  c.  contains 
9.65  grammes  of  caseine,  milk-sugar,  and  ash  together — that 
is  to  say,  of  milk-solids  not  jot. 

In  one  centimetre  of  normal  milk,  there  is  therefore  -r'{j$ 
grammes  of  milk-solids  not  fat. 

In  order  to  find  how  much  genuine  milk  there  is  in  100 
c.  c.  of  a  given  sample  of  milk,  the  rule  is,  therefore,  to  divide 
the  number  of  grammes  of  the  solids  not  fat  by  0.965. 

In  the  next  chapter  the  subject  is  still  further  developed. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

THE  MILK-SUPPLY  OF  THE  LONDON  WOEKHOtTSES. 

HATING  had  occasion  to  examine  a  large  number  of  specimens 
of  milk  during  the  year  1871, 1  have  made  some  observations 
on  the  subject,  which,  possibly,  may  not  be  deemed  to  be 
unworthy  of  the  attention  of  those  chemists  who  may  have 
a  like  task  before  them. 

The  two  common  forms  of  malpractice  which  occur  in  the 
milk-trade  are — the  practice  of  removing  the  cream  from  the 
milk,  and  the  practice  of  diluting  the  milk  with  water;  and 
the  testing  of  milk  resolves  itself  into  the  detection  of  skim 
ming  and  watering,  and  the  measurement  of  the  extent  to 
which  these  operations  have  been  carried. 

The  possibility  of  detecting  whether  or  not  a  specimen  of 
milk  has  undergone  impoverishment,  depends  obviously  on 
the  possibility  of  assigning  a  normal  composition  to  milk,  or, 
at  any  rate,  on  the  possibility  of  fixing  limits  beyond  which 
the  composition  of  milk  does  not  vary. 

From  the  observations  of  Alexander  Muller  and  Eisen- 
etuck,  who  carried  out  an  investigation  for  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  Sweden,  it  appears  that  the  milk 
yielded  by  a  herd  of  cows  remains  very  constant  in  composi 
tion  throughout  the  year.  A  daily  analysis  of  the  milk  given 
by  fifteen  cows,  of  different  breeds,  but  uniformly  well-fed, 
exhibited  the  percentage  of  solids  in  the  milk  as  never  once, 


38 


MILK-ANALYSIS. 


during  the  entire  year,  having  fallen  so  low  as  11.5.  The 
highest  percentage  of  solids  was  14.08.  Only  four  times 
during  the  year  did  the  solids  fall  below  12  per  cent.  The 
average  was  12.8  per  cent. 

My  own  observations,  made  on  an  entirely  different  plan, 
fully  bear  out  the  statement,  that  cows'  inilk  does  not  fall  so 
low  as  11.5  per  cent,  of  solids,  and  seldom  so  low  as  12  per 
cent. 

The  following  analysis  may  be  published : — 


DATE. 

DESRIPTION. 

PERCENTAGES. 

Cream. 

Solids  dry 
at  100°  C. 

12.24 
12.04 
12.28 
12.22 
13.08 
11.80 
14.34 
12.45 
14  07 
12.65 

Ash. 

I.  17  Feb.  1871 
II.  18  Feb.  1871 
III.  21  Feb.  1871 
IV. 
V. 
VI.         "         " 
VII. 
VIII.  March  1871 
IX. 
tX.  April  1871 

D.  R 
D.  R. 

Cambridgeshire. 
Surrey. 
Herts. 
Essex. 
Essex. 
Country  milk. 
Town-fed  milk. 
Alderney  milk. 

10 

0.76 
0.68 

16 
11 
11 
11 

'"Q'.S 

13.0 
11.5 



'o.'ii' 

0.74 
0.70 

The  first  two  specimens,  named  D.  R.,  were  specimens 
of  milk  bought  from  milk-dealers  believed  to  be  perfectly 
honest.  The  next  five  specimens  were  samples  of  milk  pro 
duced  on  farms  in  the  different  counties  named  in  the  table. 
Specimen  VIII.  is  a  sample  taken  by  myself,  out  of  some 
fifty  or  sixty  gallons  of  milk  fresh  from  the  country.  Taken 
altogether,  the  ten  analyses  represent  the  composition  of  an 
immense  quantity  and  of  a  great  variety  of  milk,  and  sup 
port  the  conclusion  arrived  at  in  Sweden  by  Mtiller  and 
Eisenstuck. 


MILK- SUPPLY    OF    LONDON    WOEKHOTTSES.  39 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  the  normal  composition  of 
milk,  it  is  right  to  refer  to  the  laborious  investigation  by 
Goppelsroder  (vide  "  Verhandlungen  der  Naturforschenden 
Gessellschaft  in  Basel,"  1866),  which,  at  first  sight,  would 
seem  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  above. 

In  reference  to  Goppelsroder' s  paper,  the  remark  should 
first  be  made,  that  that  chemist  does  not  appear  to  deny  that 
the  solid  residue  in  the  milk  of  a  herd  of  cows  keeps  con 
stantly  above  the  level  just  indicated.     The  point  which  he 
insists  upon  is,  that  the  milk  of  a  single  cow  sometimes  falls 
in  richness  below  the  normal  level,   and  observations  are 
cited  in  support  of  this  statement.     An  examination  of  the 
results  given  in  his  paper  does  not  lead  me  to  a  similar 
conclusion.     In  his  paper  I  find  many  determinations  of  the 
solids  in  milk  believed  to  be  unsophisticated.     Only  four  out 
of  the  entire  number  fall  below  1:2  per  cent.     Now,  it  is 
obvious  that,  however  constant  milk  may  happen  to  be  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  must  always  be  possible,   by  a  sufficient 
multiplication  of  analyses,  to  exhibit  an  analysis  showing  the 
sample  of  milk  as  having  a  composition  outside  the  normal 
limit  of  variation.     In  other  words,  there  is  such  a  thing  as 
error  of  experiment,  and  the  question  to  be  asked  respecting 
Goppelsroder 's  four  isolated  cases  of  milk,  showing  less  than 
12  per  cent,  of  solids,  is  whether  this  divergence  from  the 
standard  composition  is  real,  or  only  an  error  of  observation  ? 
Two  of  these  instances  occur  in  Table   I.,    at   the   begin 
ning   of  the   paper.      Among   eighteen   samples   of  milk, 
yielded  by  a  single  cow  in  eighteen  consecutive  days,  he  finds 
one  sample  yielding  10.69  per  cent,   of  solids,   and  another 
yielding  11.41  per  cent.     In  the  same  table,   Goppelsroder 
records  the  percentage  of  cream,  and  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  milk  before  and  after  skimming.     It  is  remarkable  that 
the  two  low  percentages  of  solids  are  not  accompanied  by  low 
yields  of  cream  or  low  specific  gravities.     The  former  of  the 


40  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

two  (viz.,  the  10.69  per  cent,  of  solids)  is  accompanied  by  10 
per  cent,  of  cream,  sp.  gr.  1.0316  before  skimming,  and  sp. 
gr.  1.0332  after  skimming;  the  latter  (viz.,  the  11.41  per 
cent,  of  solids)  by  11.2  per  cent,  of  cream,  sp.  gr.  1.032  before 
and  sp.  gr.  1.034  after  skimming.  The  third  instance  of  a  too 
low  solid  contents  is  to  be  met  with  in  Table  III.,  being  the 
evening  milk  given  by  the  last  of  eight  cows.  Percentage  of 
solids,  11.43 ;  cream,  7.5  per  cent. ;  sp.  gr.  before  skimming, 
1.0315;  sp.  gr.  after  skimming,  1.0335.  In  this  instance 
the  cream  is  indeed  rather  low,  but  then  the  effect  of  skim 
ming  on  the  specific  gravity  of  the  milk  is  considerable,  and 
the  specific  gravity  is  high . 

It  is  perfectly  true  that  if  a  little  cream  be  removed  from 
rich  milk,  and  a  little  water  (I  believe  it  should  be  warm) 
be  added  to  the  milk,  the  creamometer  and  "  lactodensimeter  " 
may  be  cheated,  so  that  there  shall  be  want  of  correspondence 
between  the  indications  of  these  instruments  and  the  solids 
in  the  milk.  But  in  the  examples  at  present  under  discus 
sion  we  are  not  dealing  with  skilfully  sophisticated  milk,  but 
with  milk  in  the  natural  condition  as  given  by  the  cow.  If 
the  figures  in  the  tables  be  correct,  the  cow  must  have,  in 
these  three  instances,  given  milk  not  only  abnormally  poor 
in  solids,  but  also  in  an  abnormal  physical  condition,  as  if  it 
had  been  manipulated  by  the  fraudulent  milk-dealer. 

The  fourth  case  of  abnormally  low  solids  occurs  in  Table 
IV.,  being  the  milk  of  the  third  cow,  which  is  recorded  as 
containing  9.54  per  cent,  of  solids.  In  this  instance,  unfor 
tunately,  the  yield  of  cream  is  not  given.  The  sp.  gr.  before 
skimming  was  1.0279,  but  the  sp.  gr.  after  skimming  is  not 
given.  I  observe,  moreover,  that  the  next  solid  contents  of 
the  table  is  a  misprint,  viz.,  3.7677  instead  of  13.7677  (that 
it  is  a  misprint  is  shown  by  the  numbers  for  the  ash,  and 
the  number  given  as  the  ratio  of  the  ash  to  the  total  solids). 

I  do  not  consider  that   Goppelsroder's  four  exceptional 


MILK-SUPPLY    OF    LONDON   WOEKHOTJSES.  41 

cases  are  sufficiently  well  established ;  and  I  consider  it  to  be 
a  well-established  fact  that  the  milk  of  a  herd  of  cows  in 
good  condition  always  contains  more  than  11.5  per  cent,  of 
solids,  and  that  single  cows  almost  invariably  (if  not  always) 
yield  milk  containing  more  than  11.5  per  cent,  of  solids. 

In  dealing  with  milk-supply  on  the  large  scale,  we  are 
little  concerned  with  the  possibility  of  single  animals  giving 
abnormal  milk,  and  need  only  concern  ourselves  with  milk 
of  normal  quality,  all  departures  from  the  standard  being 
looked  upon  as  sophistications. 

The  following,  which  is  the  result  of  several  concordant 
analyses  of  country-fed  milk,  may  be  taken  as  representing 
normal  milk.  In  100  grms.  of  milk — 

Solids  (dry  at  100°  0.)         .         .     12.5  grms. 
Water  87.5     " 


100.0 

The  12.5  grms.  consist  of  9.3  grms.  of  "  solids  which  are 
not  fat,"  and  of  3.2  grms.  of  fat. 

If  we  consider  the  changes  in  composition  which  the  addi 
tion  of  water  to  milk  will  produce,  it  will  be  apparent  that  it 
must  diminish  the  proportion  of  solids  in  the  milk,  whilst  the 
effect  of  skimming  is  to  diminish  the  proportion  of  fat,  and 
to  leave  the  proportion  of  "  solids  not  fat "  unaltered  (or 
indeed,  strictly  speaking,  to  make  a  very  trifling  increase  in 
the  proportion  of  the  "  solids  not  fat"). 

Treating  the  question  quite  rigidly,  which  I  believe  is  the 
proper  way  of  dealing  with  it,  we  airive  at  the  following : — 

Problem  I. — Given  the  percentage  of  "solids  not  fat" 
(=  a\  in  a  specimen  of  sophisticated  milk  (i.  e.,  milk  either 
watered  or  skimmed,  or  both), — required  the  number  of 
grammes  of  genuine  milk  which  was  employed  to  form  100 
grms.  of  it. 


42  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

Answer. — Multiply  the  percentage  of  " solids  not  fat"  by 
100,  and  divide  by  9.3.     Or— 


100 
•       * 


Problem  II.  —  Given  the  percentage  of  "  solids  not  fat  " 
(=  a),  also  the  percentage  of  fat  (=6),  in  a  specimen  of 
sophisticated  milk,  —  required  the  number  of  grammes  of  fat 
which  have  been  removed  by  skimming  from  the  genuine 
milk  which  was  employed  to  form  100  grms.  of  it. 

3.2        , 

Answer.  —  —  a  -  o 


In  translating  fat  into  cream,  the  rule  is  that  a  removal 
of  0.2  grm.  of  fat  equals  a  removal  of  1.0  grm.  of  cream.  This 
rule  is  directly  founded  on  experiment.  I  do  not,  however, 
claim  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  for  the  measurement  of  the 
cream. 

Finally,  a  slight  refinement  may  be  noticed.  If  a  specimen 
of  sophisticated  milk  has  been  produced  by  both  skimming 
and  watering,  it  will  be  obvious,  on  consideration,  that  the 
extraneous  water  employed  in  manufacturing  100  grms.  of  it, 
is  equal  to  the  difference  between  100  and  the  quantity  of 
genuine  milk  employed  to  make  100  grms.  of  sophisticated 
milk,  together  with  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  the  fat  re 
moved  by  skimming. 

100  3.2 

Extraneous  water  =  100  ---  a  -|  --  a  -  b 

9.3  9.3 

100      +3.2 

=  100  ----  a-  b 
9.3 


MILK-SUPPLY   OF    LONDON   WORKHOUSES.  43 

An  investigation  of  the  different  milks  supplied  to  the  dif 
ferent  London  Unions  (which  was  made  by  me  for  the 
Government,  at  Mr.  Eowsell' s  instance  last  year,  and  which 
is  published  in  Mr.  Eowsell's  "  Eeport  on  the  System  of  Sup 
ply  of  Provisions  for  the  Workhouses  of  the  Metropolis"), 
will  furnish  an  illustration  of  this  method  of  interpreting  the 
results  of  milk- analysis. 

A  sample  of  milk  was  procured  from  each  workhouse  by 
Mr.  Eowsell  at  two  different  dates,  and  forwarded  to  me  for 
analysis.  The  analysis  of  the  earlier  sample  is  marked  I.  in 
the  following  table,  and  that  of  the  later  sample  is  marked  II. 
Samples  were  also  forwarded  to  Dr.  Letheby,  who  arrived  at 
the  sume  general  results  as  myself;  but  either  from  his  hav 
ing  slightly  different  specimens,  or  from  employing  different 
methods  of  analysis,  his  numbers  sometimes  exhibited  some 
considerable  departures  from  my  own.  There  was,  however, 
no  difference  in  the  practical  effect  of  the  two  reports. 

On  inspecting  the  table,  it  will  be  seen  the  milk  from 
twenty-eight  Unions  is  reported  upon.  A  well-known  met 
ropolitan  Union  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence,  and  the  report 
would  not  be  complete  unless  it  were  recorded  that  the  West 
minster  Union  refused  to  furnish  Mr.  Eowsell  with  informa 
tion  and  samples. 

Out  of  the  fifty-six  samples  of  milk  only  fifteen  were 
unwatered,  or  nearly  unwatered.  Nine  of  these  fifteen  were 
skimmed,  leaving  only  six  that  were  at  once  unwatered  and 
unskimmed.  Accordingly  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  milk 
supplied  to  London  workhouses  appears  to  be  genuine.  In 
the  years  1871  and  1872,  I  examined  about  a  thousand 
samples  of  milk  bought  in  London  for  the  Milk  Journal, 
and  arrived  at  a  similar  conclusion  as  to  the  general  condi 
tion  of  the  milk-trade  in  the  metropolis  (vide  the  Supple 
ment  to  "Watt's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  article  Milk- 
Analysis,  p.  830). 


44  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

It  is  curious  to  compare  the  language  of  the  contract  under 
which  (as  appoars  from  Mr.  Rowsell's  report)  the  dealer  sup 
plied  the  various  Unions  with  milk,  with  the  quality  of  the 
article  as  exhibited  by  the  analysis.  "New  unskimmed 
milk,  unadulterated;  "  "  Genuine  as  from  the  cow  ;  "  "Best 
new  unskimmed  milk,  to  produce  10  per  cent,  of  cream," 
occur  in  the  contracts. 

The  Fulham  Union  is  distinguished  from  the  rest  by 
having  a  contract  for  "  skim  milk,"  the  terms  of  the  contract 
being  "  genuine,  unadulterated  milk,  pure  skim"  and  the 
Fulham  Union  gets  an  excellent  quality  of  skimmed  milk. 
Stepney  has  the  most  magniloquent  contract,  and  is  the 
worst  supplied  with  milk. 


46 


MILK-ANALYSIS. 


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48  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

In  Column  1  is  given  the  designation  of  the  sample,  viz., 
the  name  of  the  Union  which  furnished  it,  and  the  number 
of  the  sample. 

In  Column  2  is  given  the  number  of  grms.  of  "  solids  not 
fat"  contained  by  100  grms.  of  the  sample. 

In  Column  3,  the  fat. 

In  Column  4,  the  number  of  grms.  of  genuine  milk 
which  was  employed  in  making  the  100  grms.  of  sample 
(calculated). 

In  Column  5,  the  number  of  grms.  of  fat  removed  by 
skimming  from  100  grms.  of  sample  (calculated). 

In  Column  6,  the  number  of  grms.  of  cream  which  had 
been  skimmed  off  100  grms.  of  sample  (calculated). 

In  Column  7  is  given  the  number  of  grms.  of  extra 
water  which  had  been  put  into  100  grms.  of  sample 
(calculated). 

Inasmuch  as  I  have  submitted  the  analysis  of  these  work 
house  milks  to  severe  and  elaborate  treatment,  it  is  right 
that  some  particulars  should  be  recorded  concerning  the 
manner  in  which  they  were  conducted.  The  ash  of  each 
milk  was  determined,  and  in  no  instance  was  it  excessive  in 
amount,  showing  that  no  mineral  had  been  used  to  adulterate 
the  milk.  For  organic  adulteration  I  made  no  elaborate 
analysis ;  but  no  indication  of  such  adulteration  presented 
itself  in  the  course  of  the  examination ;  furthermore,  I 
should  add  that  I  have  never  yet  met  with  a  case  of  adultera 
tion  of  milk  with  organic  substances,  and  believe  it  to  be  of 
very  rare  occurrence. 

The  solid  residue  dry  at  100°  C,,  was  taken  with  great — 
and  I  believe  unprecedented — accuracy.  I  have  made  a 
study  of  the  taking  of  niilk-residues,  and  set  down  the 
average  experimental  error  in  the  solid  residue  as  not  more 
than  0,02  per  cent.  The  solid  residues  were  taken  twice 


MILK-SUPPLY    OF   LONDON    WORKHOUSES.  49 

over,  and  the  mean  of  the  two  closely-agreeing  determina 
tions  was  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  table. 

The  fats  were  taken  with  great  care,  but  they  do  not 
pretend  to  so  high  a  degree  of  accuracy  as  the  total  solids. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  numbers  (designated 
as  a)  in  the  column  headed  "  Grms.  of  Solids  not  Fat "  were 
obtained  by  subtracting  the  quantity  of  fat  (=  b)  from  the 
quantity  of  total  solids  dry  at  100°  0. 

The  calculation  of  the  quantities  of  genuine  milk  employed 
in  making  lOOgrms.  of  the  samples  is  based  on  the  assumption, 
which  I  believe  to  be  warranted,  that  milk  is  tolerably  uniform 
in  strength,  consisting  of  9.3  parts  "  solids  not  fat,"  3/2  parts 
of  fat,  and  87.5  parts  of  water.  This  is  the  composition  of 
country-fed  milk.  There  is,  however,  an  exceptionally  rich 
milk  given  by  highly  stall-fed  cows  in  town.  This  milk 
contains  10.0  parts  of  "  solids  not  fat,"  4.0  parts  of  fat,  and 
86.0  per  cent  of  Avater  ;  but  it  is  comparatively  rare. 

If,  in  any  instances  in  the  above  table,  this  rich  stall-fed 
town  milk  has  been  employed  instead  of  average  country 
milk,  then  the  real  amount  of  watering  and  skimming  in 
those  instances  is  a  little  higher  than  the  table  exhibits.  In 
the  table  there  are  seven  examples  of  more  than  100  grms.  of 
genuine  milk  being  used  in  making  100  grms.  of  the  sample. 
Of  these,  one  appears  to  be  an  example  of  this  town-fed  milk, 
the  rest  not  being  sufficiently  above  100  to  call  for  such  a 
supposition.  The  example  to  which  I  refer  is  the  Shoreditch 
milk,  which  on  the  first  occasion  yielded  9.99  per  cent  of 
"  solids  not  fat,"  which  is  a  very  close  approximation  to  the 
"  solids  not  fat"  in  100  parts  of  town-fed  milk. 

When  a  exceeds  100  a  minus  quantity  will  correspond  to  it 
in  Column  7,  unless  the  slight  correction  for  fat  obliterate  the 
minus  quantity  of  water.  On  calculating  for  town-fed  instead 
of  for  country-fed  milk,  the  minus-quantities  in  Column  7 
will  disappear  in  every  instance.  The  calculation  for  town- 


50  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

fed  milk  instead  of  for  country-fed  milk,  as  in  the  table, 
is  simple,  viz.,  substitute  10  a  for  -\^-  a  ;  substitute  0.4  a 
for  f.f  a. 

The  occurrence  of  minus-quantities  in  the  column  headed 
"  Fat  Removed  "  requires  a  word  of  explanation.  These 
minus-quantities  have  a  real  and  substantial  meaning.  They 
are  the  quantities  of  fat  which  have  been  the  reverse  of 
removed, — that  is  to  say,  which  have  been  added  to  the 
milk.  Whenever  one  of  these  minus-quantities  occurs  in 
the  "Fat  Removed "  column,  one  of  three  things  has  hap 
pened  : — Either  the  minus'quantity  is  within  the  limits  of 
experimental  error,  as  is  the  case  with  three  of  them  (viz., 
-0.06,  -6.05,  and  -0.07),  or  the  milk  was  town  milk,  or  the 
milk  had  through  imperfect  mixing  received  an  undue  share 
of  the  cream.  There  are  only  four  cases  of  the  kind  in  the 
table,  viz.,  -0.57,  -0.28,  -0.47,  and  -0.34. 


CHAPTEB    X. 


CREAM. 

WHEN  milk  is  left  at  rest  for  a  number  of  hours,  it  throws 
up  a  whitish  layer  well  known  as  cream,  which  is  simply 
milk  very  rich  in  fat. 

In  making  examinations  of  cream,  one  of  the  first  points 
which  strikes  the  attention  is  the  great  variation  in  richness 
which  it  presents. 

The  percentages  of  water  in  different  samples  of  cream.  I 
have  found  to  be  as  follows  : 

Sample  I.  72.20  per  cent  of  water. 
"      II.  71.20 

"  -III.  66.36         "  " 

"     IV.  60.17 

"       V.  53.62         "  " 

"    VI.  50.0  " 

And  the  history  and  complete  analysis  of  each  specimen  is 
as  follows : 

SAMPLE  I.  Was  raised  by  myself  from  an  excellent  speci 
men  of  country  milk.  It  contained  in  100  parts  by  weight — 

Water 72.20 

Fat 19.00 

Caseine,  milk-sugar,  and  ash  .         .  8.80 

100.00 


52  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

SAMPLE  II.  Eaised  by  myself  from  rich,  town  milk.     In 
100  parts  by  weight — 

Water 71.2 

Fat 14.1 

Caseine,  &c 14.7 


100.0 

SAMPLE  III.  The  same  cream  as  Sample  II.     It  had  been 
allowed  to  stand  for  twenty-four  hours  longer. 

In  100  parts  by  weight — 

Water 66.36 

Fat 18.87 

Caseine,  &c.    .....  14.77 

100.00 

SAMPLE  IV.  Obtained  from  a  well-known  dairy.     It  had 
been  allowed  to  rise  for  only  five  and  a  quarter  hours. 

In  100  parts  by  weight — 

Water 60.17 

Fat 33.02 

Milk-sugar,  caseine,  and  ash  .         .  6.81 

100.00 

SAMPLE  V.  From  the  same  dairy,  but  had  had  longer  time 
to  rise. 

In  100  parts  by  weight — 

Water    .         .         .         .         .         .<  53.62 

Fat "     .-  38.17 

Caseine,  milk-sugar,  and  ash  .         .  8.21 

100.00 


CBEAM.  53 

SAMPLE  VI.  From  another  dairy,  a  very  thick  cream. 

In  100  parts  by  weight — 

Water 50.00 

Fat 43.90 

Caseine  and  milk-sugar  .         .         .  5.63 

Ash  0.47 


100.00 

Every  one  of  these  creams  is  genuine  and  unsophisti 
cated.  It  is  instructive  to  compare  the  percentages  of  fat  in 
the  different  creams. 

Cream  I.  19.00  fat  per  cent. 
"    II.  14.1 
"  III,  18.87 
"  IV.  33.02          " 
"    V.  38.17          " 
"  VI.  43.9  " 

If  we  regard  the  determination  of  fat  in  Cream  II.  as 
questionable  (for  a  reason  to  be  presently  explained),  and  if 
we  accept  the  determination  of  fat  in  Cream  I.,  to  which  the 
objection  does  not  apply,  and  if  we  also  accept  the  high 
yields  of  fat  to  which  no  objection  can  be  raised,  we  are  led 
to  the  conclusion  that  cream  is  sometimes  twice  as  rich  in 
fat  as  it  is  at  other  times.  And  that  being  granted,  what 
becomes  of  the  creamometer,  regarded  as  an  instrument  of 
precision  ? 

The  rise  of  the  cream  is  a  physical  phenomenon,  depend 
ing  on  the  difference  in  density  between  the  globules  of  fat 
and  the  liquid  in  which  they  were  floating,  and  also  on  the 
size  of  the  globules.  The  difference  between  the  cream  and 
the  skim-milk  which  has  thrown  it  up  is,  that  the  former  is 


56 


MILK-ANALYSIS. 


not  fat,  and  that  any  imperfection  in  the  analysis  tends  to 
enlarge  the  solids  not  fat. 

There  is  far  more  difficulty  in  drying  a  cream-residue  than 
in  drying  a  milk-residue  :  there  is  also  the  chance  of  loss  of 
fat,  and  any  imperfections  of  this  kind  would  make  solids  not 
fat  too  high. 

In  this  place  it  is  proper  to  say  that  the  analysis  of  cream 
is  very  like  the  analysis  of  milk  ;  only  that  much  less  than 
five  grammes  should  be  taken  for  the  determination  of  water. 
The  cream  must  be  weighed  out — not  measured.  About  two 
grammes  is  ample  for  the  determination  of  water.  The  dry 
ing  must  be  made  in  the  water-bath,  and  may  take  as  long 
as  six  or  eight  hours.  The  question  is  often  put — Has  a 
given  specimen  of  cream  been  thickened  with  gum  or  such 
like  material  ? 

A  very  decided  answer  may  be  given  in  the  negative  if  the 
ratio  of  water  to  solids  not  fat  is  that  required  by  the  solu 
tion  of  caseine,  milk-sugar,  and  ash,  constituting  the  non- 
fatty  portion  of  milk. 

Should  there  be  too  much  solids  not  fat,  then  the  inquiry 
must  be  made  whether  the  excess  be  caseine. 

Cream  is  sometimes  suspected  of  being  stiffened  with 
starch ;  this,  of  course,  is  at  once  detected  by  testing  with 
a  little  iodine,  which  will  at  once  strike  a  blue,  if  any  such 
adulteration  had  been  practised. 


CHAPTEE    XL 

BUTTER. 

IN  the  thickest  varieties  of  cream  there  is  probably  incipient 
cohesion  of  the  fat  globules.  In  butter  the  fat  has  actually 
cohered ;  and  it  ought  also  to  have  been  washed  and  very 
slightly  salted.  Butter  is  milk-fat,  not  indeed  in  a  state  of 
absolute  chemical  purity,  but  with  a  certain  comparatively 
small  proportion  of  water,  and  a  little  salt. 

The  first  point  to  be  inquired  into  is,  how  much  water 
may  butter  contain  ?  In  fresh  Devonshire  butter  I  found — 

Fat, 82.7 

Salt,          .  .         .  1.1 

Water,  and  trace  of  organic  matter  .         16.2 

100.0 
In  Normandy  butter — 

Fat, 82.1 

Salt,         .  .1.8 

Water,  and  trace  of  organic  matter  .         16.1 

100.0 

These  results  agree  with  Mr.  Way's  observations ;  and 
commercial  fresh  butter  may,  accordingly,  contain  some  18 
per  cent,  of  water,  including  the  touch  of  salt.  Salt  butter 
may  apparently  contain  some  6  per  cent,  of  salt.  The 
analysis  of  butter  is  made  as  follows : — 

First,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  get  a  fair  sample  of  the 


58  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

lot.  This  is,  perhaps,  best  done  by  taking  two  specimens, 
one  from  the  edge  of  the  butter,  and  another  from  the  centre. 
About  one  gramme  of  but  ter  is  enough  for  the  estimation  of 
water.  This  is  to  be  weighed  into  one  of  the  little  platinum 
dishes,  and  dried  in  the  bath  as  if  it  were  a  milk-residue. 
After  three  hours'  drying  it  should  be  weighed,  and  returned 
to  the  bath,  and  weighed  at  intervals  of  an  hour  till  constant. 
The  drying  up  of  butter  is  tedious,  like  the  drying  up  of 
cream.  Having  dried  it  up,  the  residue  is  to  be  dissolved  in 
dry  ether,  filtered,  and  the  ethereal  solution  evaporated  to 
dryness,  and  the  residue  dried  in  the  water-bath.  This 
second  drying  is  a  very  easy  one. 

The  mineral  matter  is  estimated  by  burning  off  the  fat  and 
weighing  the  residue. 

The  "  organic  matter  not  fat "  may  be  estimated  by  differ 
ence.  It  may  also  be  estimated  directly.  For  this  purpose 
several  grammes  of  butter  are  weighed  out,  and  dried  for  a 
short  time  in  a  platinum  dish  in  the  water-bath,  and  then 
subjected  to  the  action  of  dry  ether,  which  will  dissolve  out 
the  fat  and  leave  the  rest.  The  ethereal  solution  is  to  be 
decanted  off,  and  the  residue  dried  up  in  the  water-bath, 
weighed,  and  ignited,  and  again  weighed.  The  difference 
between  the  two  weights  is  the  weight  of  the  organic  matter 
not  fat. 

With  regard  to  the  question  of  admixture  of  foreign  fats 
with  milk-fat,  we  are  unable,  in  the  present  condition  of  our 
knowledge,  to  deal  with  that  part  of  the  problem. 

As  has  been  said,  milk-fat  is  a  mixture  of  the  ethers  of 
glycerine,  which  constitute  the  common  fats.  It  contains,  it 
is  true,  a  trace  of  butyrine,  in  addition  to  the  commoner 
glycerides ;  and  it  is  possible  that,  by  an  extraction  of  the 
butyric  acid,  we  might  arrive  at  data  of  some  value  in 
forming  a  judgment  of  the  quality  of  the  fat.  But  investi 
gation  is  required  before  that  could  be  depended  upon  ;  and 


BUTTER.  59 

at  present  the  chemist  will  act  wisely  in  declining  to  pro 
nounce  on  the  difference  between  butter-fat  and  other  fat. 

In  the  butter-trade  there  are  certainly  two  kinds  of  fraud 
which  are  very  rife.  The  one  is  the  passing  off  of  butter  of 
inferior  flavor  for  butter  of  high  flavor.  'The  other  is  the 
making  of  butter  take  up  too  much  water  and  salt. 

An  investigation,  which  I  had  the  honor  of  making  for 
Government,  illustrates  how  these  two  descriptions  of  fraud 
are  practised  in  the  London  workhouses. 

I  quote  the  report  in  extenso : — 

"KEPOKT   ON   THE   BUTTER  SUPPLIED  TO  THE 
METROPOLITAN   UNIONS. 

"  Good  butter,  as  it  occurs  in  the  market,  consists  of  12.5 
per  cent,  of  water,  1.0  per  cent,  of  salt,  a  little  caseine,  and 
the  rest  of  butter-fats ;  salt  butter  may  contain  5  per  cent, 
of  salt. 

"  The  falsifications  to  which  butter  is  liable  are  said  to  be 
the  adulteration  of  it  with  organic  substances  like  starcli  or 
gelatine,  substances  which  are  not  fat ;  adulteration  with  fat 
which  is  not  butter-fat ;  undue  moisture,  and  saltness. 

"  In  the  fifty  specimens  of  workhouse  butter  sent  to  rne 
by  Mr.  F.  W.  Rowsell  between  8th  May  and  7th  July,  1871 , 
I  have  not  noted  any  case  of  adulteration  with  starch  or  other 
organic  matter  which  is  not  fat. 

"  The  adulteration  of  butter-fat  with  foreign  fats — that  is 
to  say,  with  fat  which  is  not  the  fat  of  butter — is  not  capable 
of  being  ascertained  with  precision  in  the  present  state  of 
chemical  methods  of  analysis. 

"  In  the  instance  of  butter  No.  6,  viz.,  *  St.  Giles-in-the- 
Fields  (officers),'  I  have  met  with  a  butter  in  which  there 
appears  to  be  some  foreign  fat. 

"The  point  brought  out  by  my  examination  is  the  extr$- 


60  MILK- ANALYSIS. 

ordinary  way  in  which  many  of  the  butters  have  been  made 
to  take  up  water. 

"  I  have  also  given  an  opinion  on  the  quality  of  the  butter, 
or  its  flavor.  This  opinion  was  obtained  from  professed 
butter-dealers. 

"Fourteen  of  the  butters  contain  an  undue  proportion  of 
water,  viz.,  Kensington,  Marylebone,  St.  Luke's  (Chelsea), 
Paddington  (fresh),  Paddington  (paupers),  Whitechapel  (in 
mates),  City  of  London  (inmates),  Holborn  (inmates),  Cam. 
berwell,  Stepney  (inmates),  Clapham  and  Wandsworth 
(inmates),  Hackney  (inmates),  St.  George's-in-the-East 
(inmates),  Greenwich  (inmates). 

"  The  worst  case  of  undue  wetness  and  saltness  is  '  White- 
chapel,  inmates,'  which  contains  35.6  per  cent,  of  salt  and 
water ;  and,  after  deducting  the  small  quantity  of  organic 
matter  which  is  not  fat,  is  seen  to  contain  only  some  60  per 
cent,  of  fat. 


BUTTEK. 


61 


No. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 

18 

19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

NAME. 

WATER. 

SALT. 

St.  George's  (Kensington  Workhouse). 

8.6 
23.7 
18.2 

4.5 
6.0 
6  9 

Rank. 
Wretched. 
Tolerable. 

Fair. 
Very  rank. 
Bad. 
Tolerably  good. 
Very  good. 
Good. 
Rather  rank. 
Bad. 
Middling. 
Very  bad. 
Good. 
Very  fair. 

Good. 

Bad. 
Good. 
Bad. 
Good. 
Middling. 
Bad. 
Very  bad. 
Good. 
Middling. 
Bad. 
)    Exceedingly 
j           bad. 
Tolerable. 
Middling. 
Very  bad. 
Middling. 
Nasty. 
Pretty  Good.  ' 
Fair. 
Good. 
Fair. 
Very  good. 
Bad. 
Very  bad. 
Fair. 
Good. 
Tolerable. 
Good. 
Bad. 
Good. 
Fair. 
Tolerable. 
Good. 

St   Luke's   Chelsea 

14.5 
13.2 
12.5 
9.7 
12.9 
13.1 
23.6 
16.5 
12.4 
24.9 
11.6 
11.5 

13.7 

20.0 
13.2 
15.3 

3.2 
0.7 
1.0 
2.7 
0.1 
4.3 
1.0 
•    4.9 
1.0 
10.7 
2.1 
1.2 

1.1 

2.6 
1.0 
4.7 

St.  Giles-in-the-Fields  (officers)  
St.  Giles-in-the-Fields  (paupers)  
Strand 

Fulham         

Whitechapel  (officers)    

Mile-end  Old  Town  (officers)  

Mile-end  Old  Town  (inmates)  
City  of  London  Mile-end  Workhouse 

City  of  London  Mile-ond   Workhouse 
(inmates)          

Shoreditch  (officers)  

Bethnell  Green  (inmates;  

11.3 
12.8 
12.2 
8.2 
19.7 
13.3 
13.2 
14.7 
9.8 
12.0 
12  9 

2.4 

1.0 
5.1 
2.8 
7.0 
1.5 
2.1 
8.1 
4.4 
0.9 
6.3 

St   Pancras  (inmates)  

Holborn  (officers)  

Lambeth  (inmates)  

Islington  

Poplar  (officers) 

Poplar  (inmates) 

Stepney  (officers)     

12  7 

Stepney  (inmates)  

16.5 
11.3 
14.3 
11.6 
12.2 
13.3 
15.3 
11.9 
12.6 
14.2 
16.6 
9.9 
15.4 
10.9 
19.4 
12.1 
10.7 

0.7 
2.3 
3.5 
0.1 
0.4 
1.7 
7.3 
0  5 
4.4 
1.1 
4.7 
3.5 
5.6 
1.7 
5.9 
0.4 
5.4 

St.  Olaves  (officers) 

St.  Olaves  (inmates).     .. 

Hampstead  (officers)  

Hampstead  (inmates)  
Wandsworth  and  Clapham  (officers).  .  . 
Wandsworth  and  Clapham  (inmates).  . 
St.  Saviour's  (officers)  

St.  Saviour's  (inmates) 

Hackney  (inmates)  

St.  George's  in-the-East  (officers)  
St.  George's-in-the-East  (inmates)  
Greenwich  (officers)  

Greenwich  (inmates) 

Lewisham  (officers)  

Lewisham  (inmates)  

J.  ALFRED  WAMKLYJST. 


LONDON,  July  IWi,  1871." 


CHAPTEE    XII. 


CHEESE. 


CHEESE  consists  mainly  of  caseine,  milk-fat,  a  little  salt  and 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  water.  It  is,  as  is  well  known,  pre 
pared  by  subjecting  milk  to  the  action  of  rennet,  which 
coagulates  it,  and  then  pressing  the  curds,  which,  after 
treatment,  constitute  the  cheese.  There  is  gieat  variation  in 
the  composition  of  cheese. 

According  to  Payen,  the  water  ranges  from  30  to  62  per 
cent. ;  the  fat,  according  to  the  same  chemist,  appears  to  vary 
from  about  20  to  about  30  per  cent.  The  percentage  of 
caseine  appears  to  range  from  15  to  35,  and  the  mineral 
matter  from  4J  to  7. 

The  analysis  of  cheese  is  managed  as  follows  : — The  water 
is  determined  by  taking  about  one  gramme,  and  drying  it  in 
the  water-bath  in  a  small  platinum  dish  (one  of  the  little 
dishes  used  for  milk-residues  will  answer  very  well),  until  it 
ceases  to  lose  in  weight.  After  the  determination  of  the 
water,  the  residue  may  be  ignited,  and  the  ash  weighed. 

For  the  determination  of  fat  and  caseine,  it  is  well  to  take 
a  larger  quantity  of  cheese.  About  ten  grammes  is  a  con 
venient  quantity.  The  cheese  should  be  weighed  out,  having 
been  first  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  and  then  introduced  into  a 
small  flask.  It  is  then  boiled  with  dry  ether,  and  the  resulting 
ethereal  solution  of  the  fat  is  decanted  off ;  the  boiling  and 
decantation  is  repeated  twice,  and,  finally,  the  ethereal  solu 
tions  are  carefully  evaporated  down  in  a  platinum  dish,  and 
the  fat  which  is  left  behind  is  dried  at  100°  C.  and  weighed. 


CHEESE.  63 

In  the  above  operation,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  exhaust 
thoroughly  with  ether ;  the  mass  may  be  got  out  of  the  flask 
and  powdered  up  in  a  mortar  if  necessary.  It  is  also  well  to 
moisten  with  a  few  drops  of  strong  alcohol  before  adding  the 
ether.  Having,  as  aforesaid,  obtained  from  the  cheese  an 
ethereal  solution  of  the  fat,  and  having  disposed  of  this 
ethereal  solution,  we  return  to  the  mass  which  refuses  to  dis 
solve  in  the  ether.  This  consists  of  caseine,  possibly  of  milk- 
sugar  as  well,  and  certainly  of  salt  and  phosphate  of  lime. 
It  is  to  be  treated  first  with  strong  alcohol,  and  then  washed 
with  boiling  water,  and  then  dried  in  a  platinum  dish.  The 
dry  residue  (which  consists  of  caseine  and  phosphate  of  lime 
or  ash)  is  then  weighed,  ignited,  and  weighed  again :  the 
difference,  i.  e.,  the  loss  on  ignition,  is  the  caseine. 

In  order  to  determine  the  milk-sugar,  the  alcoholic  and 
aqueous  solutions  are  to  be  evaporated  to  dryness,  the  residue 
weighed  and  ignited,  and  the  loss  on  ignition  will  include 
the  sugar. 

In  analysis  of  cheese  it  is  necessary  that  a  caution  should 
be  given  respecting  the  large  amount  of  ash  in  cheese. 
As  much  as  7  per  cent,  of  ash  may  be  present  in  cheese, 
without  adulteration  with  mineral  matter  having  been 
practised. 

It  has  been  stated  that  oxide  of  lead  has  been  found  in 
cheese.  Should  any  such  case  arise,  it  is  very  easily  dealt 
with.  The  cheose-ash  (which,  in  such  a  case,  should  be  got 
in  a  porcelain  crucible,  since  lead  attacks  platinum)  is  tested 
for  lead  by  means  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

KOUMISS. 

IN  addition  to  cream,  butter,  and  cheese,  the  derivatives  of 
milk  include  whey  and  butter-milk,  which  latter  do  not  call 
for  any  special  notice.  There  is,  however,  another  derivative 
of  milk,  which  ought  not  to  be  passed  over.  Milk  can  be 
got  to  ferment  and  yield  a  sort  of  milk- wine,  which  goes  by 
the  name  of  koumiss.  In  Tartary,  where  mare's  milk  is 
used  for  the  purpose,  the  drink  which  results  is  of  great  im 
portance  as  an  article  of  nourishment  for  the  population. 
The  use  of  koumiss  is  said,  moreover,  to  impart  immunity 
from  phthisis,  and  an  attempt  is  being  made  in  this  country 
to  produce  an  English  koumiss  for  the  use  of  patients  whose 
nutrition  is  impaired.  It  is  hoped  that  koumiss  will  prove 
to  be  at  least  as  efficacious  as  cod-liver-oil  is  believed  by 
many  people  to  be. 

The  following  analyses  of  koumiss  manufactured  in  Lon 
don  by  E.  Chapman  &  Co.  were  made  in  my  laboratory. 

It  should  be  mentioned,  that  inasmuch  as  mare's  milk 
contains  a  larger  proportion  of  sugar  than  cow's  milk,  an 
addition  of  a  little  sugar  is  made  to  the  milk  before  it  is  set 
to  ferment. 

In  "full  koumiss,"   forty-eight  hours  old,  which  had   a 
specific  gravity  of  1.032  at  67°  Fah.,  I  found — • 
In  100  parts  by  weight — 

Water 87.32 

Alcohol  .  .  1.00 

Carbonic  acid          ....  0.90 

Solids     ...  .  10.78 

100.00 


KOUMISS.  65 

The  10.78  parts  of  solids  contained — 

Caseine 2.84 

Lactose  and  lactic  acid    .         .          .  6.60 

Fat 0.68 

Ash 0.66 

10.78 

Some  of  the  same  sample  of  koumiss,  after  having  been  kept 
for  six  days  at  62°  Fah.,  contained  in  100  parts  by  weight — 
Water   .         .         .         .         .         .         88.47 

Alcohol 1.60 

Carbonic  acid          .         .         .         .  1.50 

Solids  8.43 


100,00 

A  determination  of  the  proportion  of  lactic  acid  in  this 
koumiss,  on  its  tenth  day,  or  eight  days  older  than  when 
first  examined,  showed  1.1  per  cent.  When  thirty- five  days 
old  this  koumiss  had  a  specific  gravity  of  1.023,  and  con 
tained  in  100  parts  by  weight — 

Water 89.16 

Alcohol 1.80 

Carbonic  acid          .         .         .         .  1.50 

Solids  7.54 


100.00 
The  solids  consisting  of — 

Caseine  ..... 

Lactose  and  lactic  acid    . 

Fat         .         .         .      '  . 

Ash 

7.54 

To  begin  with,  koumiss  contains  about  the  same  percent 
age  of  solids  as  skimmed  milk  ;  but,  as  will  be  observed  on 


66  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

inspecting  these  analyses,  and,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
koumiss,  as  it  grows  older,  loses  sugar  and  total  solids. 

It  is  claimed  for  koumiss  that  it  presents  the  caseine  in  a 
form  specially  assimilable  by  invalids,  and  that  koumiss  will 
sometimes  nourish  persons  when  nothing  else  will  nourish. 
It  is  not  the  place,  in  a  work  like  the  present,  to  discuss  how 
far  these  claims  are  made  good,  but  it  is  right  to  call  atten 
tion  to  the  fact  of  such  claims  having  been  put  forward. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

CONDENSED  AND  PRESERVED  MILK. 

THIS  preparation  of  milk,  which  is  now  much  in  vogue,  con 
sists  of  milk  which  has  been  evaporated  clown  in  vacuo. 

When  it  is  intended  to  keep  for  any  lengthened  period,  it 
is  mixed  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  pure  cane-sugar. 

When  it  is  not  required  to  keep  for  longer  than  two  or 
three  days,  it  is  simply  tinned,  and  not  mixed  with  sugar. 

The  condensed  milk  is  strictly  what  its  name  signifies  ;  for, 
on  being  mixed  with  the  appropriate  quantity  of  water,  it 
regenerates  milk.  The  preserved  milk,  too,  regenerates  milk 
on  being  diluted  ;  only  it  is  sweet,  owing  to  the  sugar  em 
ployed  in  the  preservation. 

A  year  ago,  a  report  was  spread  that  these  preserved  milks 
were  preserved  skim-milk,  and  not  preserved  new  milk.  This 
report,  which  was  spread  by  a  Government  official  who  ought 
to  have  known  better,  is  a  most  undeserved  calumny. 

I  have  myself  examined  the  principal  brands  of  preserved 
and  condensed  milk  which  are  in  the  London  market,  and 
find  that  the  milk  which  had  been  condensed,  or  condensed 
and  preserved,  had  been  charged  with  its  due  proportion  of 
fat. 

In  the  Anglo-Swiss,  I  found  9.9  per  cent,  of  fat.  In  the 
product  of  the  English  Condensed  Milk  Company  (Limited), 
I  found  10.4  per  cent,  of  fat  in  the  preserved  milk  and  12.11 
per  cent,  in  the  condensed  milk. 

The  method  of  analyzing  condensed  or  preserved  milk  is 
that  recommended  for  cheese.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in 


68  MILK- ANALYSIS. 

the  estimation  of  the  fat.  Disintegration  with  alcohol,  or 
actual  pulverization  in  a  mortar,  is  to  be  recommended,  in 
order  to  bring  the  ether  completely  into  relation  with  the 
mass.  The  following  analyses  of  the  produce  of  the  English 
Condensed  Milk  Company  may  be  of  interest : — 

PRESERVED    MILK. 

In  100  parts  by  weight — 

Water '20.5 

Fat -  .  10.4 

Caseine    ......  11.0 

Ash 2.0 

Cane  and  milk-sugar         .         .         .  56.1 


100.00 

CONDENSED    MILK. 

Water 51.12 

Fat 12.11 

Caseine 13.64 

Milk-sugar 20.36 

Ash 2.77 

100.00 


CHAPTEE   XV. 

POISONOUS   MILK    AND    MILK-PANICS. 

IT  is  known  that  violent  mental  emotion  exercises  an  un 
favorable  influence  on  the  secretion  of  the  mammary  gland ; 
and  a  fit  of  anger  has  rendered  the  milk  of  the  human  mother 
poisonous  to  the  child.  No  doubt  the  milk  of  the  cow  is 
more  or  less  liable  to  similar  influences ;  and  cows  which  are 
giving  milk  should  not  be  driven  or  harassed  in  any  way. 
Diet,  too,  has  an  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  milk  ;  a  purga 
tive  administered  to  the  mother  often  taking  effect  on  the 
child.  Poisonous  herbs  fed  on  by  the  cow  contaminate  the 
milk ;  and  a  very  well-known  example  in  point  is  afforded 
by  turnipy  butter,  which  derives  its  very  objectionable  (though 
not  poisonous)  properties  from  turnips  on  which  the  cow  has 
happened  to  feed.  All  this  tends  to  show  the  importance  of 
attending  to  the  health  of  milk-giving  cows,  and  to  the  kind 
of  fodder  on  which  they  are  fed. 

Milk,  after  it  has  been  yielded  by  the  animal,  may  suffer 
contamination  at  a  later  stage.  A  case  is  recorded  where,  in 
the  process  of  milking,  which  was  performed  by  persons  re 
covering  from  scarlet  fever,  the  infection  of  scarlet  fever  was 
conveyed  by  the  milk  to  children  who  drank  it.  This  is,  I 
believe,  authentic  enough. 

In  addition  to  these  genuine  instances  of  milk-poisoning, 
a  very  subtle  kind  of  poisoning  has  been  described.  It  has 
been  said  that,  if  a  very  minute  qantity  of  water  from  a 
foul  well  be  mixed  with  a  very  large  quantity  of  milk,  the 
whole  mass  of  milk  will  become  poisonous.  And,  as  is  well 


t  U  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

known,  considerable  alarm  has  been  created  in  the  west-end 
of  London,  by  a  report  that  the  milk  purveyed  by  a  certain 
milk-company  had  occasioned  an  outbreak  of  typhoid  fever 
in  Marylebone,  and  the  parishes  adjacent  to  Marylebone. 

It  is,  however,  important  to  record  that  the  result  of  in 
vestigation  has  been  to  demonstrate  the  groundlessness  of 
these  alarms.  The  returns  of  the  Registrar- General,  which 
are  now  before  the  public,  show  that  Marylebone  has  seldom 
been  so  free  from  typhoid  fever  as  during  the  period  of  the 
supposed  epidemic. 

The  history  of  this  supposed  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever, 
or,  as  it  would  be  more  correctly  designated,  the  history  of 
the  milk-panic  of  1873,  is  very  instructive  in  many  ways. 

Early  in  August,  1873,  several  children  of  an  eminent  west- 
end  physician  were  ill  of  typhoid  fever,  and  their  father 
attributed  the  disease  to  the  milk  which  they  took.  The 
doctor's  family  was  supplied  with  milk  by  the  Dairy  Reform 
Company.  On  communicating  his  suspicions  to  neighboring 
medical  men,  and  to  the  medical  officer  of  health  for  the  dis 
trict,  a  number  of  cases  of  alleged  typhoid  were  found  among 
customers  of  the  same  dairy,  a  strangely  large  proportion  of 
these  cases  occurring  in  the  families  of  medical  men.  It  was 
said  that,  naturally  enough,  the  superior  knowledge  of  medical 
men  was  the  explanation  of  the  apparent  preference  of  the 
disease  for  their  families,  and  that  by  and  by  the  anomaly 
would  disappear  when  the  multitudes  of  unrecognized  cases 
in  non-medical  families  became  sufficiently  serious  to  force 
recognition  of  their  real  nature.  The  physician  and  the 
medical  officer  of  health  (in  a  most  public-spirited  manner, 
as  it  was  called)  addressed  a  peremptory  order  to  the 
directors  of  the  milk-company  to  stop  selling  milk  ;  the 
fears  of  the  physician  even  reached  the  local  Government 
Board,  and  an  official  investigation  was  ordered. 

Meanwhile  the  press  took  up  the  subject,  and  the  medical 


POISONOUS    MILK    AND    MILK-PANICS.  71 

papers  and  the  non-technical  newspapers  vied  with  one 
another  in  sensational  descriptions  of  the  "  Outbreak  of  Ty 
phoid  Fever,"  its  source,  and  the  wickedness  or  recklessness 
of  the  milk-company  which  had  caused  it. 

At  the  outset  of  the  panic,  the  leading  journal  published  a 
list  of  twenty-three  households  wherein  inmates  were  said  to 
have  been  poisoned  by  the  Dairy  Reform  Company.  With 
the  assistance  of  my  friend  Mr.  Cooper,  I  took  the  trouble 
to,  inquire  into  some  of  these  cases.  In  one  of  these  house 
holds  there  was  no  one  ill,  and  there  had  been  no  one  ill. 
In  another  household,  there  had  been  only  a  little  summer 
diarrhoea.  In  a  third,  the  lady  had  been  taken  ill  in  Munich, 
where  typhoid  fever  is  known  to  be  rife.  In  a  fourth,  where 
the  servants  were  affected,  the  water  in  the  kitchen  was  bad, 
the  general  supply  to  the  house  being  good.  The  servant 
had,  moreover,  been  a  day's  journey  into  the  country  during 
the  very  hot  weather,  and  had  been  overheated.  I  did  not 
pursue  the  investigation  further. 

The  official  report  on  the  condition  of  the  farms  whence  the 
milk-company  derive  their  supply  of  milk,  has  not  yet  been 
published.  A  gentleman  who  attended  on  behalf  of  the  Dairy 
Reform  Company,  has,  however,  written  to  The  Times  news 
paper  a  letter  purporting  to  give  an  outline  of  the  conclusions 
arrived  at  by  the  commission.  From  this  letter  we  gather 
that  at  the  time  of  the  inquiry  there  were  no  cases  of  typhoid 
on  any  of  the  farms,  and  that  there  had  been  no  recent  cases. 
Instead,  however,  of  calling  public  attention  to  that  most 
satisfactory  result  of  the  inquiry,  the  writer  of  the  letter 
dwelt  upon  a  very  doubtful  case  which  had  occurred  on  one 
of  the  farms  at  a  rather  remote  period.  The  supposed 
epidemic  was  alleged  to  be  at  its  height  about  the  10th  of 
August,  and  before  the  beginning  of  August  nothing  had  been 
heard  of  any  epidemic.  On  the  supposition  of  infection  from 
one  of  the  farms,  we  should  hardly  look  for  the  case  before 


72  MILK-ANALYSIS. 

the  beginning  of  July.  The  case,  however,  to  which  the 
writer  of  the  letter  directed  attention,  dated  as  far  back  as 
before  the  8th  of  June.  The  case  in  question  was  that  of  the 
farmer  who  had  occupied  one  of  the  farms,  and  who  died  on 
the  8th  of  June.  Even  the  nature  of  his  illness  is  involved 
in  doubt.  The  man's  death,  indeed,  is  entered  on  the  regis 
ter  as  caused  by  heart  disease,  from  which  he  had  been 
known  to  have  suffered  for  at  least  a  year ;  and  the  sudden 
ness  of  his  death  is  quite  in  accordance  with  the  register. 
Some  few  weeks  before  his  death  he  had  an  attack  of 
diarrhoea  of  a  suspicious  character,  and  that  circumstance  was 
seized  upon  as  a  reason  for  setting  down  his  case  as  one  of 
typhoid  fever.  It  is,  however,  hard  to  believe  that  the 
excreta  from  this  man  can  have  poisoned  the  farm-well,  and 
that  the  water  from  that  well  should  have  poisoned  the 
milk  which  was  sent  to  London,  without  poisoning  any  one 
on  the  farm ;  and  the  wonder  becomes  the  greater  since 
the  water  from  the  well  was  occasionally,  though  not  usually, 
employed  for  domestic  purposes. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  reported  case  of  typhoid  oc 
curred  very  much  too  early  to  account  for  what  was  called  the 
London  outbreak.  It  is  very  curious  to  observe  that  the*  er- 
mination  of  the  outbreak  did  not  accord  with  the  theory.  That 
which  was  designated  the  "  infected  milk,"  ceased  to  be  sup 
plied  to  London  on  the  llth  of  August,  and  forthwith — within 
two  or  three  days — the  epidemic  was  reported  to  have  declined. 
The  period  of  incubation  in  typhoid  fever  is  ten  days  or  there 
abouts,  therefore  the  stoppage  of  the  poisoning  on  the  llth 
should  not  have  been  felt  till  towards  the  21st. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  when  the  returns  of  the  Re 
gistrar-General  were  published,  the  mortality  in  Maryle- 
bone  from  typhoid  fever  was  found  to  have  been  lower  than 
usual.  The  following  are  the  returns,  week  by  week,  em 
bracing  the  whole  period  of  the  panic.  Population  of  Mary- 
lebone,  159,254. 


POISONOUS    MILK    AND    MILK-PANICS.  73 

The  deaths  from  typhoid  fever  in  Marylebone  were  as 
follows : — 

During  week  ending  5th  July     ....     0 

12th     "       .          .         .          .1 

19th    "       .         .         .         .2 

"  26th    "  .         .         .0 

"  2d  August          .  .1 

"  9th       "  .         .         .1 

"  16th    "  ...     3 

23d      "  ...     2 

30th    "  ...     2 

"  6th  September     .         .         .2 

Total  during  the  ten  weeks     14 

Being  at  the  rate  of  rather  less  than  one  per  100,000  per 
week. 

A  poison  which  does  not  poison  you  if  you  take  it  in  aque 
ous  solution,  but  poisons  a  whole  township  when  that  same 
aqueous  solution  is  diluted  with  milk  a  hundred  or  a  thousand 
fold,  and  whose  period  of  incubation  is  sometimes  two  months 
and  sometimes  three  days,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  your 
case,  must  be  singular  indeed.  And  when  such  a  poison 
seems  to  have  ravaged  a  whole  parish,  it  marks  its  ravages 
most  appropriately  by  a  diminution  in  the  death-rate. 

THE  END, 


SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 

PUBLISHED  BY 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND, 

23  MURRAY  STREET  &  27  WARREN  STREET, 
NEW    YORK. 


Weisbacli's  Mechanics. 

New  and  Revised  Edition. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $10.00. 

A  MANUAL    OF   THE   MECHANICS   OF   ENGINEERING, 

and  of  the  Construction  of  Machines.  By  JULIUS  WEISBACH,  PH. 
D.  Translated  from  the  fourth  augmented  and  improved  Ger 
man  edition,  by  ECKLEY  B.  COXE,  A.M.,  Mining  Engineer.  Vol. 
I. — Theoretical  Mechanics.  1,100  pages,  and  902  wood-cut 
illustrations. 

ABSTRACT  OF  CONTENTS.— Introduction  to  the  Calculus— The  General 
Principles  of  Mechanics — Phoronoraics,  or  the  Purely  Mathematical  Theory 
of  Motion — Mechanics,  or  the  General  Physical  Theory  of  Motion  -  Statics  of 
Rigid  Bodies— The  Application  of  Statics  to  Elasticity  and  Strength — Dynam 
ics  of  Rigid  Bodies— Statics  of  Fluids  -Dynamics  of  Fluids — The  Theory 
of  Oscillation,  etc. 

"  The  present  edition  is  an  entirely  new  work,  greatly  extended  and  very 
much  improved.  It  forms  a  text-book  which  must  find  its  way  into  the  hands, 
not  only  of  every  student,  but  of  every  engineer  who  desires  to  refresh  his  mem 
ory  or  acquire  clear  ideas  on  doubtful  points.'' — Manufacturer  and  Builder. 

"  "We  hope  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  a  thorough  course  of  study  and 
education  as  such  shall  be  demanded  of  the  practising  engineer,  and  with  this 
view  we  are  glad  to  welcome  this  translation  to  our  tongue  and  shores  of  one 
of  the  most  able  of  the  educators  of  Europe." — The  Technoloaist. 


2  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Francis'  Lowell  Hydraulics, 

Third  Edition. 

4to.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

LOWELL  HYDEAULIC  EXPEKIMENTS  —  being  a  Selec 
tion  from  Experiments  011  Hydraulic  Motors,  on  the  Elow  of 
Water  over  Weirs,  and  in  Open  Canals  of  Uniform  Rectangular 
Section,  made  at  Lowell,  Mass.  By  J.  B.  ERANCTS,  Civil  Engineer. 
Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  including  many  New  Ex 
periments  on  Gauging  Water  in  Open  Canals,  and  on  the  Elow 
through  Submerged  Orifices  and  Diverging  Tubes.  With  23 
copperplates,  beautifully  engraved,  and  about  100  new  pages  of 
text. 

The  -work  is  divided  into  parts.  PART  I.,  on  hydraulic  motors,  includes 
ninety-two  experiments  on  an  improved  Fourneyron  Turbine  "Water-Wheel, 
of  about  two  hundred  horse-power,  with  rules  and  tables  for  the  construction 
of  similar  motors ;  thirteen  experiments  on  a  model  of  a  centre"- vent  water- 
wheel  of  the  most  simple  design,  and  thirty-nine  experiments  on  a  centre-vent 
water-wheel  of  about  two  hundred  and  thirty  horse-power. 

PART  II.  includes  serenty-four  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  deter 
mining  the  form  of  the  formula  for  computing  the  flow  of  water  over  weirs ; 
nine  experiments  on  the  effect  of  back-water  on.  the  flow  over  weirs ;  eighty- 
eight  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  formula  for  com 
puting  the  flow  over  weirs  of  regular  or  standard  forms,  with  several  tables 
of  comparisons  of  the  new  formula  with  the  results  obtained  by  former  experi 
menters  ;  five  experiments  on  the  flow  over  a  dam  in  which  the  crest  was  of  the 
same  form  as  that  built  by  the  Essex  Company  across  the  Merrimack  Hiver  at 
Lawrence,  Massachusetts ;  twenty-one  experiments  on  the  effect  of  observing 
the  depths  of  water  on  a  weir  at  different  distances  from  the  weir ;  an  exten 
sive  series  of  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  rules  for 
gauging  streams  of  water  in  open  canals,  with  tables  for  facilitating  the  same  j 
and  one  hundred  and  one  experiments  on  the  discharge  of  water  through  sub- 
laerged  orifices  and  diverging  tubes,  the  whole  being  fully  illustrated  by 
twenty-three  double  plates  engraved  on  copper. 

In  1855  the  proprietors  of  the  Locks  and  Canals  on  Merrimack  River  con 
sented  to  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  which  contained  a 
selection  of  the  most  important  hydraulic  experiments  made  at  Lowell  up  to 
that  time.  In  this  edition  the  principal  hydraulic  experiments  made  there, 
subsequent  to  1855,  have  be^n  added,  including  the  important  series  above 
mentioned,  for  determining  rules  for  the  gauging  the  flow  of  water  in  open 
canals,  and  the  interesting  scries  on  the  flow  through  a  submerged  Venturi's 
tube,  in  which  a  larger  flow  was  obtained  than  any  we  find  recorded. 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND. 


Francis  on  Cast-iron  Pillars. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

ON  THE  STRENGTH  OF  CAST-IEON  PILLARS,  with  Tables 
for  the  use  of  Engineers,  Architects,  and  Builders.  By  J.OIES  B. 
FRANCIS,  Civil  Engineer. 


Merrill's  Iron  Truss  Bridges. 

Second  Edition. 

4to.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

IRON  TEUSS  BRIDGES  FOR  RAILROADS.  The  Method  of 
Calculating  Strains  in  Trusses,  with  a  careful  comparison  of  tho 
most  prominent  Trusses,  in  reference  to  economy  in  combination, 
etc.,  etc.  By  Brevet  Colonel  WILLIAM  E.  MERRILL,  U.S.A., 
Major  Corps  of  Engineers.  Nino  lithographed  plates  of  illustra 
tions. 

"  The  work  before  us  is  an  attempt  to  give  a  basis  for  sound  reform  in  this 
^feature  of  railroad  engineering,  by  throwing  '  additional  light  upon  tho 
method  of  calcul  iting  the  maxima  strains  that  can  come  upon  any  part  of  a 
bridge  truss,  and  upon  the  manner  of  proportioning  each  part,  so  that  it  shall 
be  as  strong  relatively  to  its  own  strains  as  any  other  part,  and  so  that  tho 
entire  bridge  may  be  strong  enough  to  sustain  several  times  as  great  strains 
as  the  greatest  that  can  come  upon  it  in  actual  use.'  " — Scientific  American. 

"  The  author  has  presented  his  views  in  a  clear  and  intelligent  manner,  and 
the  ingenuity  displayed  in  coloring  the  figures  so  as  to  present  certain  facts 
to  the  eye  forms  no  inappreciable  part  of  the  merits  of  the,  work.  The  reduc 
tion  of  the  '  formulae  for  obtaining  the  strength,  volume,  and  weight  of  a  cast- 
iron  pillar  under  a  strain  of  compression,'  will  be  very  acceptable  to  those  who 
have  occasion  hereafter  to  make  investigations  involving  these  conditions.  As 
a  whole,  the  work  has  been  well  done." — Railroad  Gazette,  Chicago. 


Humber's  Strains  in  Girders. 

18mo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

A  HANDY  BOOK  FOR  THE  CALCULATION  OF  STRAINS 

IN  GIRDERS  and  Similar  Structures,  and  their  Strength,  con 
sisting  of  ForniulcG  and  Corresponding  Diagrams,  with  numerous 
details  for  practical  application.  By  WILLIAM  HuiiBER,  Fully 
illustrated. 


4  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  JSY 

Shreve  on  Bridges  and  Roofs. 

8vo,  87  wood-cut  illustrations.    Cloth.     $5.00. 

A  TREATISE  OX  THE  STRENGTH  OF  BRIDGES  AND 
ROOFS — comprising  the  determination  of  Algebraic  formulas 
for  Strains  in  Horizontal,  Inclined  or  Rafter,  Triangular,  Bow 
string,  Lenticular  and  other  Trusses,  from  fixed  and  moving 
loads,  with  practical  applications  and  examples,  for  the  use  of 
Students  and  Engineers.  By  SAMUEL  H.  SHREVE,  A.M..  Civil 
Engineer. 

The  rules  for  the  determination  of  strains  given  in  this  -work,  in  the  shape 
of  formulas,  are  deduced  from  a  few  well-known  mechanical  laws,  and  are  not 
based  upon  assumed  conditions;  the  processes  are  given  and  applications 
made  of  the  results,  so  that  it  is  equally  valuable  as  a  text-book  for  the 
Student  and  as  a  manual  for  the  Practical  Engineer.  Among  the  examples 
are  the  G-reithausen  Bridge,  the  Kuilemberg  Bridge,  a  bridge  of  the  Saltash 
type,  and  many  other  compound  trusses,  whose  strains  are  calculated  by 
methods  which  are  not  only  free  from  the  use  of  the  higher  mathematics,  but 
are  as  simple  and  accurate,  and  as  readily  applied,  as  those  which  are  used  in 
proportioning  a  Warren  Girder  or  other  simple  truss. 


The  Kansas  City  Bridge. 

4to.     Cloth.     $6.00 

WITH  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  EEGIMEN  OF  THE  MIS- 
SOUEI  KIVER,  and  a  description  of  the  Methods  used  for 
Founding  in  that  River.  By  0.  CHANTJTE,  Chief  Engineer,  and 
GEORGE  MORISON,  Assistant  Engineer.  Illustrated  with  five 
lithographic  views  and  twelve  plates  of  plans. 

illustrations. 

VIEWS.— View  of  the  Kansas  City  j  tion  Works,  Pier  No.  3.  IV.  Founda- 
Bridge,  August  2,   1869.     Lowering  i  tion  Works,  Pier  No.  4.     V.  Founda- 


Caisson  No.  1  into  position.  Caisson 
for  Pier  No.  4  brought  into  position. 
View  of  Foundation  Works,  Pier  No. 
4.  Pier  No.  1. 

PLATES. — I.  Map  showing  location 
of  Bridge.  II.  Water  Record— Cross 
Section  of  River — Profile  of  Crossing 


tion  Works,  Pier  No.  4.  VI.  Caisson 
No.  5— Sheet  Piling  at  Pier  No.  6— 
Details  of  Dredges — Pile  Shoe— Beton 
Box.  VII.  Masonry — Draw  Protec 
tion — False  Works  between  Piers  3 
and  4.  VIII.  Floating  Derricks. 
IX.  General  Elevation — 176  feet  span. 


—Pontoon  Protection.      III.    Water  I  X.  248  feet  span.   XL  Plans  of  Draw. 
Deadener — Caisson    No.   2 — Founda    |  XII.  Strain.  Diagrams. 


I).  VAST  NOSTRAND. 


Clarke's    Quincy  Bridge. 

4to.     Cloth.     $7.50. 

DESCKIPTION  OF  THE  IKON  RAILWAY  Bridge  across  the 
Mississippi  Biver  at  Quincy,  Illinois.  By  THOMAS  CURTIS  CLARKE, 
Chief  Engineer.  Illustrated  with  twenty-one  lithographed 
plans. 

Illustrations. 


ELATES. — Greneral  Plan  of  Missis 
sippi  River  at  Quincy,  showing  loca 
tion  of  Bridge.  IIo.  General  Sections 
of  Mississippi  River  at  Quincy,  show 
ing  location  of  Bridge.  II/>.  General 
Sections  of  Mississippi  River  at  Quin 
cy,  showing  location  of  Bridge.  III. 
General  Sections  of  Mississippi  River 
at  Quincy,  showing  location  of  Bridge. 
IV.  Plans  of  Masonry.  V.  Diagram 
of  Spans,  showing  the  Dimensions, 
Arrangement  of  Panels,  efcc.  VI.  Two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  span,  and  de 
tails.  VII.  Three  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  Pivot  Draw.  VIII.  Details  of 
three  hundred  and-  sixty  feet  Draw. 
IX.  Ice-  Breakers.  Foundations  of  Piers 
and  Abutments,  Water  Table,  and 


Curve  of  Deflections.  X.  Founda 
tions  of  Pier  2,  in  Process  of  Con 
struction.  XI.  Foundations  of  Pier 
3,  and  its  Protection.  XII.  Founda 
tions  of  Pier  3,  in  Process  of  Construc 
tion,  and  Steam  Dredge.  XIII.  Foun 
dations  of  Piers  5  to  18,  in  Process 
of  Construction.  XIV.  False  Works, 
showing  Process  of  Handling  and  Set 
ting  Stone.  XV.  False  Works  for 
Raising  Iron  Work  of  Superstructure. 
XVI.  Steam  Dredge  used  in  Founda 
tions  9  to  18.  XVII.  Single  Bucket 
Dredge  used  in  Foundations  of  Bay 
Piers.  XVIII.  Saws  used  for  Cut 
ting  Piles  under  water.  XIX.  Sand 
Pump  and  Concrete  Box.  XX  Ma 
sonry  Travelling  Crane. 


Whipple  on  Bridge  Building. 

8vo,  Illustrated.     Cloth.     $4.00. 

AN  ELEMENTARY  AND  PEACTICAL  TREATISE  ON 
BEIDGE  BUILDING.  An  enlarged  and  improved  edition  of 
the  Author's  original  work.  By  S.  WHIPPLE,  C.  E.,  Inventor  of 
the  Whipple  Bridges,  &c.  Second  Edition. 

The  design  has  been  to  develop  from  Fundamental  Principles  a  system  easy 
of  comprehension,  and  such  as  to  enable  the  attentive  reader  and  student  to 
judge  understandingly  for  himself,  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  different  plans 
and  combinations,  and  to  adopt  for  use  such  as  may  be  most  suitable  for  the 
cases  he  may  have  to  deal  with. 

It  is  hoped  the  work  may  prove  an  appropriate  Text-Book  upon  the  subject 
treated  of,  for  the  Engineering  Student,  and  a  useful  manual  for  the  Practic 
ing  Engineer  and  Bridge  Builder. 


6  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED     BY 

Stoney  on  Strains, 

New  and  Revised  Edition,  with  numerous  illustrations. 

Royal  8vo,  664  pp.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

THE  THEORY  OF  STRAINS  IN  GIRDEES  and  Similar  Struc 
tures,  with  Observations  on  the  Application  of  Theory  to  Practice, 
and  Tables  of  Strength  and  other  Properties  of  Materials.  By 
BIKDON  B.  STONET,  B.  A. 


Roebling's  Bridges. 

Imperial  folio.     Cloth.     $25.00. 

LONG  AND  SHORT  SPAN  RAILWAY  BRIDGES.  By  JOHIT 
A.  ROEBLING,  C.  E.  Illustrated  with  large  copperplate  engrav 
ings  of  plans  and  views. 

List  of  Plates 

1.  Parabolic  Truss  Railway  Bridge.  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  Details  of  Parabolic 
Truss,  -with  centre  span  500  feet  in  the  clear.  7.  Plan  and  View  of  a  Bridge 
over  the  Mississippi  River,  at  St.  Louis,  for  railway  and  common  travel.  8,  9, 
10,  11,  12.  Details  and  View  of  St.  Louis  Bridge.  13.  Railroad  Bridge  over 
the  Ohio. 

Diedrichs'  Theory  of  Strains. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

A  Compendium  for  the  Calculation  and  Construction  of  Bridges, 
Roofs,  and  Cranes,  with  the  Application  of  Trigonometrical 
Notes.  Containing  the  most  comprehensive  information  in  re 
gard  to  the  Resulting  Strains  for  a  permanent  Load,  as  also  for 
a  combined  (Permanent  and  Rolling)  Load.  In  two  sections 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  present  time.  By  JOHN  DIED- 
EICHS.  Illustrated  by  numerous  plates  and  diagrams, 

"  The  want  of  a  compact,  universal  and  popular  treatise  on  the  Construc 
tion  of  Roofs  and  Bridges — especially  one  treating  of  the  influence  of  a  varia 
ble  load — and  the  unsatisfactory  essays  of  different  authors  on  the  subject, 
induced  me  to  prepare  this  work."  i. 


D.    VAN  NOSTRAND. 


Whilden's  Strength  of  Materials, 

12mo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

ON  THE  STEENGTH  OF  MATEEIALS  used  in  Engineering 
Construction.     By  J.  K.  WHILDEN. 


Campin  on  Iron  Roofs. 

Large  8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

ON  THE  CONSTEUCTION  OF  IEON  EOOFS.  A  Theoretical 
and  Practical  Treatise.  By  FEANCIS  CAMPIN.  With  wood-cuts 
and  plates  of  Eoofs  lately  executed. 

"  The  mathematical  formulas  are  of  an  elementary  kind,  and  the  process 
admits  of  an  easy  extension  so  as  to  embrace  the  prominent  varieties  of  iron 
truss  bridges.  The  treatise,  though  of  a  practical  scientific  character,  may  bo 
easily  mastered  by  any  one  familiar  with  elementary  mechanics  and  plane 
trigonometry." 

Holley's  Railway  Practice. 

1  vol.  folio.     Cloth.     $12.00. 

AMEEICAN  AND  EUEOPEAN  EAILWAY  PEACTICE,   in 

the  Economical  Generation  of  Steam,  including  the  materials 
and  construction  of  Coal-burning  Boilers,  Combustion,  the  Varia 
ble  Blast,  Vaporization,  Circulation,  Super-heating,  Supplying 
and  Heating  Feed- water,  &c.,  and  the  adaptation  of  Wood  and 
Coke-burning  Engines  to  Coal-burning  ;  and  in  Permanent  Way, 
including  Eoad-bed,  Sleepers,  Eails,  Joint  Fastenings,  Street 
Eailways,  &c.,  &c.  By  ALEXANDER  L.  HOLLEY,  B.  P.  With  77 
lithographed  plates. 

"  This  is  an  elaborate  treatise  by  one  of  our  ablest  civil  engineers,  on  the  con 
struction  and  use  of  locomotives,  with  a  few  chapters  on  the  building  of  Rail 
roads.  *  *  *  All  these  subjects  are  treated  by  the  author,  who  is  a 
first-class  railroad  engineer,  in  both  an  intelligent  and  intelligible  manner.  The 
facts  and  ideas  are  well  arranged,  and  presented  in  a  clear  and  simple  style, 
accompanied  by  beautiful  engravings,  and  we  presume  the  work  will  be  regard 
ed  as  indispensable  by  all  who  are  interested  in  a  knowledge  of  the  construc 
tion  of  railroads  and  rolling  stock,  or  the  working  of  locomotives." — Scientific 
American. 


8  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Henrici's  Skeleton  Structures. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

SKELETON  STRUCTURES,  especially  in  their  Application  to 
the  building  of  Steel  and  Iron  Bridges.  By  OLAUS  HENRICI. 
With  folding  plates  and  diagrams. 

By  presenting  these  general  examinations  on  Skeleton  Structures,  -with 
particular  application  for  Suspended  Bridges,  to  Engineers,  I  venture  to  ex 
press  the  hope  that  they  -will  receive  these  theoretical  results  with  some  confi 
dence,  even  although  an  opportunity  is  wanting  to  compare  them  with  practi 
cal  results.  O.  H. 


Useful  Information  for  Railway  Men. 

Pocket  form.     Morocco,  gilt,  $2.00. 

Compiled  by  W.  G.  HAMILTON,  Engineer.     Fifth    edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.     570  pages. 

"  It  embodies  many  valuable  formulae  and  recipes  useful  for  railway  men, 
and,  indeed,  for  almost  every  class  of  persons  in  the  world.  The  '  informa 
tion  '  comprises  some  valuable  formulae  and  rules  for  the  construction  of 
boilers  and  engines,  masonry,  properties  of  steel  and  iron,  and  the  strength 
of  materials  generally." — Railroad  Gazette,  Chicago. 


Brooklyn  Water  Works. 

1  vol.  folio.     Cloth.     $25.00. 

A  DESCRIPTIVE  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
THE  WORKS,  and  also  Reports  on  the  Brooklyn,  Hartford, 
Belleville,  and  Cambridge  Pumping  Engines.  Prepared  and 
printed  by  order  of  the  Board  of  Water  Commissioners.  With 
59  illustrations. 

CONTENTS. — Supply  Ponds — The  Conduit -Ridgewood  Engine  House  and 
Pump  Well — Ridgewood  Engines — Force  Mains — Ridgewood  Reservoir — • 
Pipe  Distribution — Mount  Prospect  Reservoir — Mount  Prospect  Engine 
House  and  Engine — Drainage  Grounds — Sewerage  Works — Appendix. 


]>.  VAN' 


Zirkwood  on  Filtration. 

4to.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

EEPOET  ON  THE  FILTRATION  OF  EIVEE  WATEES,  for 

the  Supply  of  Cities,  as  practised  in  Europe,  made  to  the  Board 
of  Water  Commissioners  of  the  City  of  St.  Louis.  By  JAMES  P. 
KJCEKWOOD.  Illustrated  by  30  double-plate  engravings. 

CONTENTS. — Report  on  Filtration — London  "Works,  General — Chelsea 
"Water  Works  and  Filters — Lambeth  Water  Works  and  Filters — Southwark 
and  Vauxhall  Water  Works  and  Filters — Grand  Junction.  Water  Works  and 
Filters— West  Middlesex  Water  Works  and  Filters— New  River  Water 
Works  and  Filters — East  London  Water  Works  and  Filters — Leicester  Water 
Works  and  Filters — York  Water  Works  and  Filters — Liverpool  Water  Works 
and  Filters — Edinburgh  Water  Works  and  Filters — Dublin  Water  Works 
and  Filters— Perth  Water  Works  and  Filtering  Gallery— Berlin  Water 
Works  and  Filters — Hamburg-  Water  Works  and  Reservoirs — Altona  Water 
Works  and  Filters — Tours  Water  Works  and  Filtering  Canal — Angers  Water 
Works  and  Filtering  Galleries — Nantes  Water  Works  and  Filters — Lyons 
Water  Works  and  Filtering  Galleries — Toulouse  Water  Works  and  Filtering 
Galleries — Marseilles  Water  Works  and  Filters — Genoa  Water  Works  and 
Filtering  Galleries — Leghorn  Water  Works  and  Cisterns — Wakefield  Water 
Works  and  Filters — Appendix. 


Tnnner  on  Roll-Turning. 

1  vol.  8vo.  and  1  vol.  plates.     $10.00. 

A  TEEATISE  ON  ROLL-TURNING  FOE  THE  MANTJFAC- 
TUEE  OF  LEON.  By  PETER  TUXNER.  Translated  and  adapted. 
By  JOHN  B.  PEAUSE,  of  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Works.  With 
numerous  wood-cuts,  8vo.,  together  with  a  folio  atlas  of  10  litho 
graphed  plates  of  Eolls,  Measurements,  &c. 

"  We  commend  this  book  as  a  clear,  elaborate,  and  practical  treatise  upon 
the  department  of  iron  manufacturing  operations  to  which  it  is  devoted. 
The  writer  states  in  his  preface,  that  for  twenty-five  years  he  has  felt  the 
necessity  of  such  a  Avork,  and  has  evidently  brought  to  ita  preparation  the 
fruits  of  experience,  a  painstaking  regard  for  accuracy  of  statement,  and  a 
desire  to  furnish  information  in  a  style  readily  understood.  The  book  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  one  interested,  either  in  the  general  practice  of 
mechanical  engineering,  or  the  special  branch  of  manufacturing  operations  to 
which  the  work  relates.'  — American  Artisan. 


10  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  J3T 

G-lynn  on  the  Power  of  Water. 

ISmo.     Cloth.     $1.00. 

A  TEEATISE  ON  THE  POWER  OF  WATER,  as  applied  to 
drive  Flour  Mills,  and  to  give  motion  to  Turbines  and  other 
Hydrostatic  Engines.  By  JOSEPH  GLYXN,  F.R.  S.  Third  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged,  with  numerous  illustrations. 


Hewson  on  Embankments. 

8™.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE  OF  EMBANKING   LANDS 

from  River  Floods,  as  applied  to  the  Levees  of  the  Mississippi. 
By  WILLIAM  HEWSON,  Civil  Engineer. 

"  This  is  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  principles  and  practice  of  embanking 
lands  from  river  floods,  as  applied  to  the  Levees  of  the  Mississippi,  by  a  highly 
intelligent  and  experienced  engineer.  The  author  says  it  is  a  first  attempt 
to  reduce  to  order  and  to  rule  the  design,  execution,  and  measurement  of  the 
Levees  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  a  most  useful  and  needed  contribution  to 
scientific  literature. — Philadelphia  Evening  Journal. 


Griiner  on  Steel. 

8vo.  Cloth.     $3.50. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL.  By  M.  L.  GETTER,  trans 
lated  from  the  French.  By  Lenox  Smith,  A.  M.,  E.  M.,  with  an 
appendix  on  the  Bessemer  Process  in  the  United  States,  by  the 
translator.  Illustrated  by  lithographed  drawings  and  wood-cuts. 

"  The  purpose  of  the  work  is  to  present  a  careful,  elaborate,  and  at  the 
same  time  practical  examination  into  the  physical  properties  of  steel,  as  well 
as  a  description  of  the  new  processes  and  mechanical  appliances  for  its  manufac 
ture.  The  information  which  it  contains,  gathered  from  many  trustworthy 
sources,  will  be  found  of  much  value  to  the  American  steel  manufacturer, 
who  may  thus  acquaint  himself  with  the  results  of  careful  and  elaborate  ex 
periments  in  other  countries,  and  better  prepare  himself  for  successful  com 
petition  in  this  important  industry  with  foreign  makers.  The  fact  that  this 
volume  is  from  the  pen  of  one  of  the  ablest  metallurgists  of  the  present  day, 
cannot  fail,  we  think,  to  secure  for  it  a  favorable  consider ation. — Iron  Age. 


D.    VAN'  NOSTRAND.  11 

Banerman  on  Iron. 

-      12mo.  Cloth.     $2.00. 

TKEATISE  ON  THE  METALLUEGY  OF  IKON.  Contain 
ing  outlines  of  the  History  of  Iron  Manufacture,  methods  of 
Assay,  and  analysis  of  Iron  Ores,  processes  of  manufacture  of 
Iron  and  Steel,  etc.,  etc.  By  II.  BAUERMAJ?.  First  American 
edition.  Revised  and  enlarged,  with  an  appendix  on  the  Martin 
Process  for  making  Steel,  from  the  report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt. 

Illustrated  with  numerous  wood  engravings. 

• 
"  This  is  an  important  addition  to  the  stock  of  technical  -works  published  in 

this  country.  It  embodies  the  latest  facts,  discoveries,  and  processes  con 
nected  with  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  and  should  bo  in  the  hands  of 
every  person  interested  in  the  subject,  as  well  as  in  all  technical  and  scientific 
libraries." — Scientific  American. 


Link  and  Valve  Motions,  by  W.  S. 
Auchincloss. 

8vo.  Cloth.     $3.00. 

APPLICATION  OF  THE  SLIDE  VALVE  and  Link  Motion  to 
Stationary,  Portable,  Locomotive  and  Marino  Engines,  with  new 
and  simple  methods  for  proportioning  the  parts.  By  WILLIAM 
S.  AUCHINCLOSS,  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Designed  as 
a  hand-book  for  Mechanical  Engineers,  Master  Mechanics, 
Draughtsmen  and  Students  of  Steam  Engineering.  All  dimen 
sions  of  the  valve  are  found  with  the  greatest  ease  by  means  of 
a  Printed  Scale,  and  proportions  of  the  link  determined  without 
the  assistance  of  a  model.  Illustrated  by  o7  wood-cuts  and  21 
lithographic  plates,  together  with  a  copperplate  engraving  of  the 
Travel  Scale. 

All  the  matters  we  have  mentioned  are  treated  with  a  clearness  and  absence 
of  unnecessary  verbiage  which  renders  the  work  a  peculiarly  valuable  one. 
The  Travel  Scale  only  requires  to  bo  known  to  bo  appreciated.  Mr.  A.  writes 
so  ably  on  his  subject,  we  wish  he  had  written  more.  London  En 
gineering. 

We  have  never  opened  a  work  relating  to  steam  which  seemed  to  us  better 
calculated  to  give  an  intelligent  mind  a  clear  understanding  of  the  depart 
ment  it  discusses. — Scientific.  American. 


12  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Slide  Valve  by  Eccentrics,  by  Prof. 
C,  W.  MacCord. 

4to.    Illustrated.    Cloth,     $4.00. 

A  PEACTICAL  TEEATISE  ON  THE  SLIDE  YALVE  BY 
ECCENTEICS,  examining  by  methods,  the  action  of  the  Eccen 
tric  upon  the  Slide  Valve,  and  explaining  the  practical  proces 
ses  of  laying  out  the  movements,  adapting  the  valve  for  its 
various  duties  in  the  steam-engine.  For  the  use  of  Engineers, 
Draughtsmen,  Machinists,  and  Students  of  valve  motions  in 
general.  By  0.  "W.  MACCORD,  A.  M.,  Professor  of  Mechanical 
Drawing,  Stevens'  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N  J. 


Stillman's  Steam-Engine  Indicator. 

12mo.  Cloth.     $1.00. 

THE  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICATOR,  and  the  Improved  Mano 
meter  Steam  and  Vacuum  Gauges ;  their  utility  and  application 
By  PAUL  STILLMAN.  New  edition. 


Bacon's  Steam-Engine  Indicator. 

12mo.  Cloth.     $1.00.     Mor.     $1.50. 

A  TEEATISE  ON  THE  EICHAEDS  STEAM-ENGINE  IN 
DICATOR,  with  directions  for  its  use.  By  CHARLES  T.  PORTER. 
Eevised,  with  notes  and  large  additions  as  developed  by  Amer 
ican  Practice,  with  an  Appendix  containing  useful  formulae  and 
rules  for  Engineers.  By  E.  W.  BACON,  M.  E.,  Member  of  thf 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated.  Second  Edition 

In  this  work,  Mr.  Porter's  book  has  been  taken  as  the  basis,  but  Mr.  Bacon 
has  adapted  it  to  American  Practice,  and  has  conferred  a  great  boon  on 
American  Engineers. — Artiaan. 


Bartol  on  Marine  Boilers. 

8vo.  Cloth.     $1.50. 

TEEATISE  ON  THE  MAEINE  BOILEES  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES.     By  H.  B.  BARTOL.     Illustrated. 


J).   VAN  NOSTKAND.  13 

G-illmore's  Limes  and  Cements. 

Fourth  Edition.     Revised  and  Enlargd. 

Svo.     Cloth.     $4.00. 

PEACTICAL  TEEATISE  ON  LIMES,  HYDKAULIC  CE 
MENTS,  AND  MOETAES.  Papers  on  Practical  Engineering, 
U.  S.  Engineer  Department,  No.  9,  containing  Eeports  of 
numerous  experiments  conducted  in  Ne\r  York  City,  during  the 
years  1858  to  1861,  inclusive.  By  Q.  A.  GILLMOBE,  Brig-General 
U.  S.  Volunteers,  and  Major  U.  S.  Corps  of  Engineers.  With. 
numerous  illustrations. 

"  This  work  contains  a  record  of  certain  experiments  and  researches  made 
under  the  authority  of  the  Engineer  Bureau  of  the  War  Department  from 
1858  to  1861,  upon  the  various  hydraulic  cements  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  materials  for  their  manufacture.  The  experiments  were  carefully  made, 
and  are  well  reported  and  compiled. ' — Journal  Franklin  Institute. 


Gillmore's  Coignet  Beton. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

COIGNET   BETON  AND  OTIIEE  AETIFICIAL  STONE.     By 
Q.  A.  GILUHOHE.     9  Plates,  Yiews,  etc. 

This  work  describes  with  considerable  minuteness  of  detail  the  several  kinds 
of  artificial  stone  in  most  general  use  in  Europe  and  now  beginning  to  be 
introduced  in  the  "United  States,  discusses  their  properties,  relative  merits, 

and  cost,  and  describes  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed 

The  subject  is  one  of  special  and  growing  interest,  and  we  commend  the  work, 
embodying  as  it  does  the  matured  opinions  of  an  experienced  engineer  and 
expert. 


Williamson's  Practical  Tables. 

4to.     Flexible  Cloth.     $2.50. 

PEACTICAL  TABLES  IN  METEOEOLOGY  AND  HYPSO- 
METEY,  in  connection  with  the  use  of  the  Barometer.  By  Col. 
E.  S,  WILLIAMSOM,  U.  S.  A, 


14  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Williamson  on  the  Barometer. 

4to.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

ON  THE  USE  OF  THE  BAROMETER,  ON  SUEYEYS  AND 
RECONNAISSANCES.  Part  I.  Meteorology  in  its  Connec 
tion  with.  Hypsometry.  Part  II.  Barometric  Hypsometry.  By 
E.  S.  WILLIAMSON,  Bvt.  Lieut.-Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of 
Engineers.  With.  Illustrative  Tables  and  Engravings.  Paper 
No.  15,  Professional  Papers,  Corps  of  Engineers. 

"  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL.,  Feb.  27,  18G7. 
"  Gen.  A.  A.  HUMPHREYS,  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army  : 

"  GENERAL, — I  have  the  honor  to  submit  to  you,  in  the  following  pages,  the 
results  of  my  investigations  in  meteorology  and  hypsometry,  made  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  how  far  the  barometer  can  be  used  as  a  reliable  instru 
ment  for  determining  altitudes  on  extended  lines  of  survey  and  reconnais 
sances.  These  investigations  have  occupied  the  leisure  permitted  me  from  my 
professional  duties  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  I  hope  the  results  will  be 
deemed  of  sufficient  value  to  have  a  place  assigned  them  among  the  printed 
professional  papers  of  the  United  States  Corps  of  Engineers. 
"  Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

"R.  S.  WILLIAMSON, 
"Bvt.  Lt.-Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of  U.  S.  Engineers." 


Yon  Cotta's  Ore  Deposits. 

8vo.     Cloth.     04.00. 

TREATISE  ON  OEE  DEPOSITS.  By  BERNHARD  YON  COTTA, 
Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  Freidberg, 
Saxony.  Translated  from  the  second  German  edition,  by 
FREDERICK  PRIME,  Jr.,  Mining  Engineer,  and  revised  by  the 
author,  with  numerous  illustrations. 

"  Prof.  Von  Cotta  of  the  Freiberg  School  of  Mines,  is  the  author  of  the 
best  modern  treatise  on  ore  deposits,  and  we  are  heartily  glad  that  this  ad 
mirable  work  has  been  translated  and  published  in  this  country.  The  trans 
lator,  Mr.  Frederick  Prime,  Jr.,  a  graduate  of  Freiberg,  has  had  in  his  work 
the  great  advantage  of  a  revision  by  the  author  himself,  who  declares  in  a 
prefatory  note  that  this  may  be  considered  as  a  new  edition  (the  third)  of  his 
own  book. 

"  It  is  a  timely  and  welcome  contribution  to  the  literature  of  mining  in 
this  country,  and  we  are  grateful  to  the  translator  for  his  enterprise  and  good 
judgment  in  undertaking  its  preparation ;  while  we  recognize  with  equal  cor 
diality  the  liberality  of  the  author  in  granting  both  permission  and  assist 
ance." — Extract  fro  in  Review  in  Engineering  ami  Mining  Journal. 


D.  VAtf  NOSTMAJ^D.  15 

Plattner's  Blow-Pipe  Analysis. 

Second  edition.    Kevised.     8vo.     Cloth.    $7.50. 

PLATTNEE'S  MANUAL  OF  QUALITATIVE  AND  QUAN 
TITATIVE  ANALYSIS  WITH  THE  BLOW-PIPE.  From 
the  last  German  edition  Revised  and  enlarged.  By  Prof.  Tn. 
EICHTER,  of  the  Royal  Saxon  Mining  Academy.  Translated  by 
Prof.  H.  B.  CORNWALL,  Assistant  in  the  Columbia  School  of 
Mines,  New  York ;  assisted  by  Jonx  II.  CASWELL.  Illustrated 
with  eighty-seven  wood-cuts  and  one  Lithographic  Plate.  5GO 
pages. 

"  Plattner's  celebrated  work  has  long  been  recognized  as  the  only  complete 
book  on  Blow-Pipe  Analysis.  The  fourth  German  edition,  edited  by  Prof. 
Richter,  fully  sustains  the  reputation  which  the  earlier  editions  acquired  dur 
ing  the  lifetime  of  the  author,  and  it  is  a  source  of  great  satisfaction  to  us  to 
know  that  Prof.  Richter  has  co-operated  with  the  translator  in  issuing  tho 
American  edition  of  the  work,  which  is  in  fact  a  fifth  edition  of  tho  original 
work,  being  far  more  complete  than  tho  last  German  edition." — Silttman's 
Journal. 

There  is  nothing  so  complete  to  be  found  in  tho  English  language.  Platt 
ner's  book  is  not  a  mere  pocket  edition  ;  it  is  intended  as  a  comprehensive  guide 
to  all  that  is  at  present  known  on  the  blow-pipe,  and  as  such  is  really  indis 
pensable  to  teachers  and  advanced  pupils. 

"  Mr.  Cornwall's  edition  is  something  more  than  a  translation,  as  it  contains 
many  corrections,  emendations  and  additions  not  to  be  found  in  tho  original. 
It  is  a  decided  improvement  on  the  work  in  its  German  dress." — Journal  of 
Applied  Chemistry, 


Egleston's  Mineralogy. 

8ro.     Illustrated  with  34  Lithographic  Plates.     Cloth.     $4.50. 

LECTUEES  ON  DESCRIPTIVE  MINEEALOGY,  Delivered 
at  the  School  of  Mines,  Columbia  College.  Br  PROFESSOR  T. 
EGLESTON. 

These  lectures  are  what  their  title  indicates,  the  lectures  on  Mineralogy 
delivered  at  the  School  of  Mines  of  Columbia  College.  They  have  been 
printed  for  the  students,  in  order  that  more  time  might  be  given  to  the  vari 
ous  methods  of  examining  and  determining  minerals.  The  second  part  has 
only  been  printed.  The  first  part,  comprising  crystallography  and  physical 
mineralogy,  will  be  printed  i*t  soiuo  future  time. 


16  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Pynchon's  Chemical  Physics, 

New  Edition,.    Revised  and  Enlarged. 

Crown  8vo.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  CHEMICAL  PHYSICS,  Designed  for  the 
Use  of  Academies,  Colleges,  and  High.  Schools.  Illustrated  with 
numerous  engravings,  and  containing  copious  experiments  with 
directions  for  preparing  them.  By  THOMAS  RUGGLES  PYXCHOX, 
M.A.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  the  Natural  Sciences,  Trinity 
College,  Hartford. 

Hitherto,  no  work  suitable  for  general  use,  treating  of  all  these  subjects 
•within  the  limits  of  a  single  volume,  could  be  found  ;  consequently  the  atten 
tion  they  have  received  has  not  been  at  all  proportionate  to  their  importance. 
It  is  believed  that  a  book  containing  so  much  valuable  information  within  so 
small  a  compass,  cannot  fail  to  meet  with  a  ready  sale  among  all  intelligent 
persons,  while  Professional  men,  Physicians,  Medical  Students,  Photograph 
ers,  Telegraphers,  Engineers,  and  Artisans  generally,  will  find  it  specially 
valuable,  if  not  nearly  indispensable,  as  a  book  of  reference. 

"  "We  strongly  recommend  this  able  treatise  to  our  readers  as  the  first 
work  ever  published  on  the  subject  free  from  perplexing  technicalities.  In 
style  it  is  pure,  in  description  graphic,  and  its  typographical  appearance  is 
artistic.  It  is  altogether  a  most  excellent  work." — Eclectic  Medical  Journal. 

"  It  treats  fully  of  Photography,  Telegraphy,  Steam  Engines,  and  the 
various  applications  of  Electricity.  In  short,  it  is  a  carefully  prepared 
volume,  abreast  with,  the  latest  scientific  discoveries  and  inventions.'' — Hart 
ford  Courant. 

Plympton's  Blow-Pipe  Analysis. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

THE  BLOW-PIPE  :  A  System  of  Instruction  in  its  practical  use 
being  a  graduated  course  of  Analysis  for  the  use  of  students, 
and  all  those  engaged  in  the  Examination  of  Metallic  Combina 
tions.  Second  edition,  with  an  appendix  and  a  copious  index. 
By  GEORGE  W.  PLYMPTON,  of  the  Polytechnic  Institute,  Brooklyn. 

"  This  manual  probably  has  no  superior  in  the  English  language  as  a  text 
book  for  beginners,  or  as  a  guide  to  the  student  working  without  a  teacher. 
To  the  latter  many  illustrations  of  the  utensils  and  apparatus  required  in 
using  the  blow-pipe,  as  well  as  the  fully  illustrated  description  of  the  blow 
pipe  flame,  will  be  especially  serviceable." — New  York  Teaclter. 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND.  17 


lire's  Dictionary. 

Sixth   Edition. 

London,  1872. 
3  vols.    8vo.     Cloth,  $25.00.     Half  Russia,  $32.50. 

DICTIONARY  OF  ARTS,  MANUFACTURES,  AND  MINES. 
By  ANDREW  UEE,  M.D.  Sixth,  edition.  Edited  by  ROBERT  HUNT, 
F.R.S.,  greatly  enlarged  and  rewritten. 


Brande  and  Cox's  Dictionary, 

Neiv  Edition. 

London,  1872. 
3  vols.     8vo.     Cloth,  $20.00.     Half  Morocco,  $27.50. 

A  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art.     Edited  by  TV.  T. 
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Watt's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry. 

Supplementary  Volume. 

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results  which  have  appeared  in  1870  and  1871. 

*#*  Complete  Sets  of  the  Work,  New  and  Revised  edition,  including  above 
supplement.  6  vols.  8vo.  Cloth.  $62.00. 


Rammelsberg's  Chemical  Analysis. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.25. 

GUIDE  TO  A  COURSE  OF  QUANTITATIVE  CHEMICAL 
ANALYSIS,  ESPECIALLY  OF  MINERALS  AND  FUR 
NACE  PRODUCTS.  Illustrated  by  Examples.  By  C.  F. 
RAJOIELSBERG.  Translated  by  J.  TOWLER,  M.D. 

This  work  has  been  translated,  and  is  now  published  expressly  for  those 
students  in  chemistry  whose  time  and  other  studies  in  colleges  do  not  permit 
them  to  enter  upon  the  more  elaborate  and  expensive  treatises  of  Fresenius 
and  others.  It  ia  the  condensed  labor  of  a  master  in  chemistry  and  of  a  prac 
tical  analyst, 


18  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Eliot  and  Storer's  Qualitative 
Chemical  Analysis. 

New  Edition,  Revised. 

12mo.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

A  COMPENDIOUS  MANUAL  OF  QUALITATIVE  CHEMI 
CAL  ANALYSIS.  By  CHARLES  W.  ELIOT  and  FRANK  H.  STORER. 
Revised  with  the  Cooperation  of  the  Authors,  by  WILLIAM  RIP- 
LEY  NICHOLS,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Massachusetts  Insti 
tute  of  Technology. 

"  This  Manual  has  great  merits  as  a  practical  introduction  to  the  science 
and  the  art  of  which  it  treats.  It  contains  enough  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  qualitative  analysis,  "  in  the  wet  way, '  to  bring  out  all  the  reasoning  in 
volved  in  the  science,  and  to  present  clearly  to  the  student  the  most  approved 
methods  of  the  art.  It  is  specially  adapted  for  exercises  and  experiments  in 
the  laboratory;  and  yet  its  classifications  and  manner  of  treatment  are  so 
systematic  and  logical  throughout,  as  to  adapt  it  in  a  high  degree  to  that 
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practical  methods  of  arriving  at  scientific  facts." — Lutheran  Observer. 

"  We  wish  every  academical  class  in  the  land  could  have  the  benefit  of  the 
fifty  exercises  of  two  hours  each  necessary  to  master  this  book.  Chemistry 
would  cease  to  be  a  mere  matter  of  memory,  and  become  a  pleasant  experi 
mental  and  intellectual  recreation.  We  heartily  commend  this  little  volume 
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mental  discipline." — College  Courant. 


Craig's  Decimal  System. 

Square    32mo.     Limp.     50c. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  An  Account  of  the  Decimal 
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"  The  most  lucid,  accurate,  and  useful  of  all  the  hand-books  on  this  subject 
that  we  have  yet  seen.  It  gives  forty-seven  tables  of  comparison  between  the 
English  and  French  denominations  of  length,  area,  capacity,  weight,  and  the 
Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  thermometers,  with  clear  instructions  how  to  use 
them ;  and  to  this  practical  portion,  which  helps  to  make  the  transition  as 
easy  as  possible,  is  prefixed  a  scientific  explanation  of  the  errors  in  the  metric 
system,  and  how  they  may  be  corrected  iu  tho  laboratory." — Nation.  _; 


D.   VAN  NOSTEAND.  19 

Nngent  on  Optics. 

12mo.      Cloth.     $2.00 

TEEATISE  ON  OPTICS ;  or,  Light  and  Sight,  theoretically  and 
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signed  to  afford  accurate  and  complete  information  to  all  interested  in  appli 
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Barnard's  Metric  System. 

8vo.     Brown  cloth.     $3.00. 

THE   METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS   AND  MEASURES. 

An  Address  delivered  before  the  Convocation  of  the  University  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  at  Albany,  August,  1871.  By  FREDERICK 
A.  P.  BARXARD,  President  of  Columbia  College,  New  York  City. 
Second  edition  from  the  Revised  edition  printed  for  the  Trustees 
of  Columbia  College.  Tinted  paper. 

"  It  is  the  best  summary  of  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  metric  weights 
and  measures  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  not  only  because  it  contains  in 
small  space  the  leading  facts  of  the  case,  but  because  it  puts  the  advocacy  of 
that  system  on  the  only  tenable  grounds,  namely,  the  great  convenience  of  a 
decimal  notation  of  weight  and  measure  as  well  as  money,  the  value  of  inter 
national  uniformity  in  the  matter,  and  the  fact  that  this  metric  system  Js 
adopted  and  in  general  use  by  the  majority  of  civilized  nations." — 


The  Young  Mechanic. 

Illustrated.     12mo.      Cloth.     $1.75. 

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From  the  English  edition,  with  corrections. 


20  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Harrison's  Mechanic's  Tool-Book. 

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ted  with  44  engravings. 

"  This  work  is  specially  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  Machinists  and  work 
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gent  and  ingenious  mechanic,  who  had  the  faculty  of  adapting  tools  to  various 
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even  to  the  unpractised  eye  by  a  series  of  well-executed  wood  engravings." — 
Philadelphia  Inquirer. 

Pope's  Modern  Practice  of  the  Elec 
tric  Telegraph. 

Eighth  Edition.    8vo.    Cloth     $2.00. 

A  Hand-book  for  Electricians  and  Operators.  By  FBANK  L.  POPE. 
Seventh  edition.  Rerised  and  enlarged,  and  fully  illustrated. 

Extract  from  Letter  of  Prof.  Morse. 

"  I  have  had  time  only  cursorily  to  examine  its  contents,  but  this  examina 
tion  has  resulted  in  great  gratification,  especially  at  the  fairness  and  unpre 
judiced  tone  of  your  whole  work. 

"  Your  illustrated  diagrams  are  admirable  and  beautifully  executed. 

"  I  think  all  your  instructions  in  the  use  of  the  telegraph  apparatus  judi 
cious  and  correct,  and  I  most  cordially  wish  you  success." 

Extract  from  Letter  ctf  Prof.  O.  W.  Hough,  of  the  Dudley  Observatory. 

"  There  is  no  other  work  of  this  kind  in  the  English  language  that  con 
tains  in  so  small  a  compass  so  much  practical  information  in  the  application 
of  galvanic  electricity  to  telegraphy.  It  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  one 
interested  in  telegraphy,  or  the  use  of  Batteries  for  other  purposes." 


Morse's  Telegraphic  Apparatus. 

Illustrated.     8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

EXAMINATION  OF  THE  TELEGRAPHIC  APPARATUS 
AND  THE  PROCESSES  IN  TELEGAPHY.  By  SAMUEL  F. 
B.  MORSE,  LL.D.,  United  States  Commissioner  Paris  Universal 
Exposition,  1867. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND.  21 

Sabine's  History  of  the  Telegraph. 

12mo.  Cloth.     $1.25. 

HISTOEY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  TELE 
GRAPH,  with  Descriptions  of  some  of  the  Apparatus.  By 
ROBERT  SA.BIXE,  C.  E.  Second  edition,  with  additions. 

CONTENTS. — I.  Early  Observations  of  Electrical  Phenomena.  II.  Tele 
graphs  by  Frictional  Electricity.  III.  Telegraphs  by  Voltaic  Electricity. 
IV.  Telegraphs  by  Electro-Magnetism  and  Magneto-Electricity.  V.  Tele 
graphs  now  in  use.  VI.  Overhead  Lines.  VII.  Submarine  Telegraph  Lines. 
VEIL  Underground  Telegraphs.  IX.  Atmospheric  Electricity. 


Haskins'    Galvanometer, 

Pocket  form.     Illustrated.     Morocco  tucks.     $2.00. 

THE  GALVANOMETER,  AND  ITS  USES ;   a  Manual  for 
Electricians  and  Students.    By  C.  H.  HASKINS. 

"We  hope  this  excellent  little  work  will  meet  with  the  sale  its  merits 
entitle  it  to.  To  every  telegrapher  who  owns,  or  uses  a  Galvanometer,  or 
ever  expects  to,  it  will  be  quite  indispensable." — TJie  Telegrapher. 


Culley's  Hand-Book  of  Telegraphy. 

Svo.     Cloth.     $6.00. 

A  HAND-BOOK  OF  PRACTICAL  TELEGRAPHY.  By 
R.  S.  CTLLEY,  Engineer  to  the  Electric  and  International 
Telegraph  Company.  Fifth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 


Foster's  Submarine  Blasting. 

4to.     Cloth.     $3.50. 

SUBMARINE  BLASTING  in  Boston  Harbor,  Massachusetts- 
Removal  of  Tower  and  Corwin  Rocks.  By  JOHX  G.  FOSTER, 
Lieutenant-Colonel  of  Engineers,  and  Brevet  Major-General,  U. 
S.  Army.  Illustrated  with  seven  plates. 

LIST  OF  PLATES. — 1.  Sketch  of  the  Narrows,  Boston  Harbor.  2. 
Townsend's  Submarine  Drilling  Machine,  and  "Working  Vessel  attending. 
8.  Submarine  Drilling  Machine  employed.  4.  Details  of  Drilling  Machine 
employed.  5.  Cartridges  and  Tamping  used.  6.  Fuses  and  Insulated  Wires 
used.  7.  Portable  Friction  Battery  used. 


22  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Barnes'  Submarine  Warfare. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

SUBMARINE  WARFARE,  DEFENSIVE  AND  OFFENSIVE. 

Comprising  a  full  and  complete  History  of  the  Invention  of  the 
Torpedo,  its  employment  in  War  and  results  of  its  use.  De 
scriptions  of  the  yarious  forms  of  Torpedoes,  Submarine  Batteries 
and  Torpedo  Boats  actually  used  in  War.  Methods  of  Ignition 
by  Machinery,  Contact  Fuzes,  and  Electricity,  and  a  full  account 
of  experiments  made  to  determine  the  Explosive  Force  of  Gun 
powder  under  Water.  Also  a  discussion  of  the  Offensive  Torpedo 
system,  its  effect  upon  Iron-Clad  Ship  systems,  and  influence  upon 
Future  Naval  Wars.  By  Lieut. -Commander  JOHN  S.  BARNES, 
U.  p.  N.  With  twenty  lithographic  plates  and  many  wood-cuts. 

"  A  book  important  to  military  men,  and  especially  so  to  engineers  and  ar 
tillerists.  It  consists  of  an  examination  of  the  various  offensive  and  defensive 
engines  that  have  been  contrived  for  submarine  hostilities,  including  a  discus 
sion  of  the  torpedo  system,  its  effects  upon  iron-clad  ship-systems,  and  its 
probable  influence  upon  future  naval  wars.  Plates  of  a  valuable  character 
accompany  the  treatise,  which  affords  a  useful  history  of  the  momentous  sub 
ject  it  discusses.  A  great  deal  of  useful  information  is  collected  in  its  pages, 
especially  concerning  the  inventions  of  SCHOLL  and  VEHDU,  and  of  JONES' 
and  HUNT'S  batteries,  as  well  as  of  other  similar  machines,  and  the  use  in 
submarine  operations  of  gun-cotton  and  nitro-glycerme." — JV.  Y.  Times. 


Randall's  Quartz  Operator's  Hand- 
Book. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

QUARTZ  OPERATOR'S   HAND-BOOK.     By   P.  M.  RANDALL. 

New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     Fully  illustrated. 

The  object  of  this  work  has  been  to  present  a  clear  and  comprehensive  ex 
position  of  mineral  veins,  and  the  means  and  modes  chiefly  employed  for  the 
mining  and  working  of  their  ores — more  especially  those  containing  gold  and 
silver. 


D.    VAST  ITOSTIIA&D.  23 

Mitchell's  Manual  of  Assaying. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $10.00. 

A  MANUAL  OF  PRACTICAL  ASSAYING.    By  JOHN  MITCHELL. 
Third  edition.     Edited  by  WILLIAM  CKOOKES,  F.R.S. 

In  this  edition  are  incorporated  all  the  late  important  discoveries  in  Assay 
ing  made  in  this  country  and  abroad,  and  special  care  is  devoted  to  the  very 
important  Volumetric  and  Colorimetric  Assays,  as  well  as  to  the  Blow-Pipe 

Assays. 


Benet's  Chronoscope. 

Second  Edition. 

Illustrated.     4to.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

ELECTRO-BALLISTIC  MACHINES,  and  the  Schultz  Chrono 
scope.  By  Lieutenant-Colonel  S.  V.  BENET,  Captain  of  Ordnance, 
U.  S.  Army. 

CONTENTS. — 1.  Ballistic  Pendulum.  2.  Gun  Pendulum.  3.  Use  of  Elec 
tricity.  4.  Navez'  Machine.  5.  Vignotti's  Machine,  with  Plates.  6.  Benton's 
Electro-Ballistic  Pendulum,  with  Plates.  7.  Leur's  Tro-Pendulum  Machine 
8.  Schult/'s  Chronoscope,  with  two  Plates. 


Michaelis'  Chronograph.. 

4to.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

THE  LE  BOULENGE  CHRONOGRAPH.  With  three  litho 
graphed  folding  plates  of  illustrations.  By  Brevet  Captain  0  E. 
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"  The  excellent  monograph  of  Captain  Michaelis  enters  minutely  into  the 
details  of  construction  and  management,  and  gives  tables  of  the  times  of  flight 
calculated  upon  a  given  fall  of  the  chronometer  for  ail  distances.  Captain 
Michaelis  has  done  good  service  in  presenting  this  work  to  his  brother  officers, 
describing,  as  it  does,  an  instrument  which  bids  fair  to  be  in  constant  use  in 
our  future  ballistic  experiments.'  — Army  and  Navy 


24          SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Silversmith's  Hand-Book. 

Fourth  Edition. 

Illustrated.     12mo.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

A  PRACTICAL  HAND-BOOK  FOR  MINERS,  Metallurgists, 
and  Assayers,  comprising  the  most  recent  improvements  in  the 
disintegration,  amalgamation,  smelting,  and  parting  of  the 
Precious  Ores,  with  a  Comprehensive  Digest  of  the  Mining 
Laws.  Greatly  augmented,  revised,  and  corrected.  By  JULIUS 
SILVERSMITH.  Fourth  edition.  Profusely  illustrated.  1  vol. 
12mo.  Cloth.  $3.00. 

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ored  to  embody  all  the  processes  for  the  reduction  and  manipulation  of  the 
precious  ores  heretofore  successfully  employed  in  Germany,  England,  Mexico, 
and  the  United  States,  together  with  such  as  have  been  more  recently  invented, 
and  not  yet  fully  tested — all  of  which  are  profusely  illustrated  and  easy  of 
comprehension. 


Simms'  Levelling. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF 
LEVELLING,  showing  its  application  to  purposes  of  Railway 
Engineering  and  the  Construction  of  Roads,  &c.  By  FREDERICK 
TV.  SIMMS,  C.  E.  From  the  fifth  London  edition,  revised  and 
corrected,  with  the  addition  of  Mr.  Law's  Practical  Examples  for 
Setting  Out  Railway  Curves.  Illustrated  with  three  lithographic 
plates  and  numerous  wood-cuts. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  text-books  for  the  general  surveyor,  and  there 
is  scarcely  a  question  connected  with  levelling  for  which  a  solution  would  be 
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— Mining  Journal. 

"  The  text-book  on  levelling  in  most  of  our  engineering  schools  and  col 
leges." — Engineers. 

"The  publishers  have  rendered  a  substantial  service  to  the  profession, 
especially  to  the  younger  members,  by  bringing  out  the  present  edition  of 
Mr.  Simms'  useful  work." — Engineering. 


1).  VAN-  JTOSTXAND.  25 

Stuart's    Successful    Engineer. 

18mo.     Boards.     50  cents. 

HOW  TO  BECOME  A  SUCCESSFUL  ENGINEER:  Being 
Hints  to  Youths  intending  to  adopt  the  Profession.  By 
BERNARD  STUART,  Engineer.  Sixth  Edition. 

"A  valuable  little  book  of  sound,  sensible  advice  to  young1  men  who 
wish  to  rise  in  the  most  important  of  the  professions." — Scientific  American. 


Stuart's  Naval  Dry  Docks. 

Twenty-four  engravings  on  steel. 
Fourth  Edition. 

4to.     Cloth.     $6.00. 

THE  NAVAL  DRY  BOCKS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
By  CHARLES  B.  STUAHT.  Engineer  in  Chief  of  the  United  States 
Navy. 

List  of  Illustrations. 

Pumping-  Engine  and  Pumps — Plan  of  Dry  Dock  and  P ump- Well  -  Sec 
tions  of  Dry  Dock — Engine  House — Iron  Floating  Gate — Details  of  Floating 
Gate — Iron  Turning  Gate — Plan  of  Turning  Gate — Culvert  Gate — Filling 
Culvert  Gates — Engine  Bed — Plate,  Pumps,  and  Culvert — Engine  House 
Roof — Floating  Sectional  Dock— Details  of  Section,  and  Plan  of  Turn-Tables 
— Plan  of  Basin  and  Marine  Railways — Plan  of  Sliding  Frame,  and  Elevatiou 
of  Pumps— Hydraulic  Cylinder— Plan  of  Gearing  for  Pumps  and  End  Floats 
— Perspective  View  of  Dock,  Basin,  and  Railway— Plan  of  Basin  of  Ports 
mouth  Dry  Dock— Floating  Balance  Dock— Elevation  of  Trusses  and  the  Ma 
chinery—Perspective  View  of  Balance  Dry  Dock 


Free  Hand  Drawing. 

Profusely  Illustrated.     18mo.    Boards.     50  cents. 

A  GUIDE  TO  ORNAMENTAL,  Figure,   and  Landscape  Draw 
ing.     By  an  Art  Student. 

CONTENTS.— Materials  employed  in  Drawing,  and  how  to  use  them— On 
Lines  and  how  to  Draw  them — On  Shading — Concerning  lines  and  shading, 
with  applications  of  them  to  simple  elementary  subjects — Sketches  from  Na 


ture. 


26  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Minifie's  Mechanical  Drawing. 

Eighth  Edition. 

Boyal  8vo.     Cloth.     $4.00. 

A  TEXT-BOOK  OP  GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING  for  the  use 
of  Mechanics  and  Schools,  in  which  the  Definitions  and  Rules  of 
Geometry  are  familiarly  explained ;  the  Practical  Problems  are 
arranged,  from  the  most  simple  to  the  more  complex,  and  in  their 
description  technicalities  are  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  With 
illustrations  for  Drawing  Plans,  Sections,  and  Elevations  of 
Buildings  and  Machinery ;  an  Introduction  to  Isometrical  Draw 
ing,  and  an  Essay  on  Linear  Perspective  and  Shadows.  Illus 
trated  with  over  200  diagrams  engraved  on  steel.  By  Wit, 
MINIFIE,  Architect.  Eighth  Edition.  With  an  Appendix  on  the 
Theory  and  Application  of  Colors. 

"  It  is  the  best  work  on  Drawing-  that  we  have  ever  seen,  and  is  especially  a 
text-book  of  Geometrical  Drawing  for  the  use  of  Mechanics  and  Schools.  No 
young  Mechanic,  such  as  a  Machinist,  Engineer,  Cabinet-Maker,  Millwright, 
or  Carpenter,  should  be  without  it." — Scientific  American. 

"  One  of  the  most  comprehensive  works  of  the  kind  ever  published,  and  can 
not  but  possess  great  value  to  builders.  The  style  is  at  once  elegant  and  sub 
stantial.  " — Pennsylvania  Inquirer. 

"  Whatever  is  said  is  rendered  perfectly  intelligible  by  remarkably  well- 
executed  diagrams  on  steel,  leaving  nothing  for  mere  vague  supposition ;  and 
the  addition  of  an  introduction  to  isometrical  drawing,  linear  perspective,  and 
the  projection  of  shadows,  winding  up  with  a  useful  index  to  technical  terms." 
— Glasgow  Mechanics'  Journal. 

^i"  The  British  Government  has  authorized  the  use  of  this  book  in  their 
schools  of  art  at  Somerset  House,  London,  and  throughout  the  kingdom. 


Minifie's  Geometrical  Drawing. 

New  Edition.    Enlarged. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

GEOMETRICAL  DRAWING.  Abridged  from  the  octavo  edition, 
for  the  use  of  Schools.  Illustrated  with  48  steel  plates.  New 
edition,  enlarged. 

<;  It  is  well  adapted  as  a  text-book  of  drawing  to  be  used  in  our  High  Schools 
and  Academies  where  this  useful  branch  of  the  fine  arts  has  been  hitherto  too 
much  neglected." — Boston  Journal. 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND.  27 

Bell  on  Iron  Smelting. 

Svo.     Cloth.     $6.00. 

CHEMICAL  PHENOMENA  OF  IRON  SMELTING.  An  ex 
perimental  and  practical  examination  of  the  circumstances  which 
determine  the  capacity  of  the  Blast  Furnace,  the  Temperature 
of  the  Air,  and  the  Proper  Condition  of  the  Materials  to  be 
operated  upon.  By  I.  LOWTHIAN  BELL. 

"  The  reactions  which  take  place  in  every  foot  of  the  blast-furnace  have 
been  investigated,  and  the  nature  of  every  step  in  the  process,  from  the  intro 
duction  of  the  raw  material  into  the  furnace  to  the  production  of  the  pig  iron, 
has  been  carefully  ascertained,  and  recorded  so  fully  that  any  one  in  the  trade 
can  readily  avail  themselves  of  the  knowledge  acquired  ;  and  we  have  no  hes 
itation  in  saying  that  the  judicious  application  of  such  knowledge  will  do 
much  to  facilitate  the  introduction  of  arrangements  which  will  still  further 
economize  fuel,  and  at  the  satrse  time  permit  of  the  quality  of  the  resulting 
metal  being  maintained,  if  not  improved.  The  volume  is  one  which  no  prac 
tical  pig  iron  manufacturer  can  afford  to  be  without  if  he  be  desirous  of  en 
tering  upon  that  competition  which  nowadays  is  essential  to  progress,  and 
in  issuing  such  a  work  Mr.  Bell  has  entitled  himself  to  the  best  thanks  of 
every  member  of  the  trade." — London  Mining  Journal. 


King's  Notes  on  Steam. 

TJiirteenth  Edition. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

LESSONS  AND  PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  STEAM,  the  Steam- 
Engine,  Propellers,  &c.,  &c.,  for  Young  Engineers,  Students,  and 
others.  By  the  late  W.  E.  KING,  U.  S.  N.  Eevised  by  Chief- 
Engineer  J.  W.  KING,  U.  S.  Navy. 

"  This  is  one  of  the  best,  because  eminently  plain  and  practical  treatises  on 
the  Steam  Engine  ever  published. ' — Philadelphia  Press. 

This  is  the  thirteenth  edition  of  a  valuable  work  of  the  late  "W.  H.  King, 
U.  S.  N.  It  contains  lessons  and  practical  notes  on  Steam  and  the  Steam  En 
gine,  Propellers,  etc.  It  is  calculated  to  be  of  great  use  to  young  marine  en 
gineers,  students,  and  others.  The  text  is  illustrated  and  explained  by  nu 
merous  diagrams  and  representations  of  machinery.  —Boston  Daily  Adver 
tiser. 

-fViti   TT     ft     "^Jatrtil     Ana/lomv      A  iniiirvVlia. 


28  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Burgh's  Modern  Marine  Engineering. 

One  thick  4to  vol.     Cloth.     $25.00.     Half  morocco.     $30.00. 

MODERN  MARINE  ENGINEERING,  applied  to  Paddle  and 
Screw  Propulsion.  Consisting  of  36  Colored  Plates,  259  Practical 
Wood-cut  Illustrations,  and  403  pages  of  Descriptive  Matter,  the 
whole  being  an  exposition  of  the  present  practice  of  the  follow 
ing  firms  :  Messrs.  J.  Penn  &  Sons ;  Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons  & 
Field  ;  Messrs.  James  Watt  &  Co.  ;  Messrs.  J.  &  G.  Ronnie  ; 
Messrs.  R.  Napier  &  Sons  ;  Messrs.  J.  &  W.  Dudgeon ;  Messrs. 
Ravenhill  &  Hodgson ;  Messrs.  Humphreys  &  Tenant ;  Mr. 
J.  T.  Spencer,  and  Messrs.  Forrester  &  Co.  By  N.  P.  BUBGII, 
Engineer. 

PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. — General  Arrangements  of  Engines,  11  examples 
— General  Arrangement  of  Boilers,  14  examples  —  General  Arrangement  of 
Superheaters,  11  examples — Details  of  Oscillating  Paddle  Engines,  84  ex 
amples — Condensers  for  Screw  Engines,  both  Injection  and  Surface,  20  ex 
amples — Details  of  Screw  Engines,  20  examples — Cylinders  and  Details  of 
Screw  Engines,  21  examples — Slide  Valves  and  Details,  7  examples — Slide 
Valve,  Link  Motion,  7  examples — Expansion  Valves  and  Gear,  10  exam-1 
pies — Details  in  General,  30  examples— Screw  Propeller  and  Fittings,  13  ex 
amples  Engine  and  Boiler  Fittings,  28  examples  -  la  relation  to  the  Princi 
ples  of  the  Marine  Engine  and  Boiler,  33  examples. 

Notices  of  the  Press. 

"Every  conceivable  detail  of  the  Marine  Engine,  tinder  all  its  various 
forms,  is  profusely,  and  we  must  add,  admirably  illustrated  by  a  multitude 
of  engravings,  selected  from  the  best  and  most  modern  practice  of  the  first 
Marine  Engineers  of  the  day.  The  chapter  on  Condensers  is  peculiarly  valu 
able.  In  one  word,  there  is  no  other  work  in  existence  which  will  bear  a 
moment's  comparison  with  it  as  an  exponent  of  the  skill,  talent  and  practical 
experience  to  which  is  due  the  splendid  reputation  enjoyed  by  many  British 
Marine  Engineers."— Engineer. 

"  This  very  comprehensive  work,  which  was  issued  in  Monthly  parts,  has 
just  been  completed.  It  contains  large  and  full  drawings  and  copious  de 
scriptions  of  most  of  the  best  examples  of  Modern  Marine  Engines,  and  it  is 
a  complete  theoretical  and  practical  treatise  on  the  subject  of  Marine  Engi 
neering." — American  Artisan. 

This  is  the  only  edition  of  tho  above  work  with  the  beautifully  colored 
plates,  and  it  is  out  of  print  in  England.  . 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND.  29 

Bourne's  Treatise  on  the  Steam  En< 

gine. 

Nlntli  Edition. 

Hlustrated.     4to.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

TEEATISE  ON  THE  STEAM  ENGINE  in  its  various  applica, 
tions  to  Mines,  Mills,  Steam.  Navigation,  Railways,  and  Agricul 
ture,  with,  the  theoretical  investigations  respecting  the  Motive 
Power  of  Heat  and  the  proper  Proportions  of  Steam  Engines. 
Elaborate  Tables  of  the  right  dimensions  of  every  part,  and 
Practical  Instructions  for  the  Manufacture  and  Management  of 
every  species  of  Engine  in  actual  use.  By  JOHN  BOURNE,  being 
the  ninth,  edition  of  "A  Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,"  by 
the  "Artisan  Club."  Illustrated  by  thirty-eight  plates  and  five 
hundred  and  forty- six  wood-cuts. 

As  Mr.  Bourne's  work  has  tho  great  merit  of  avoiding1  unsound  and  imma 
ture  views,  it  may  safely  be  consulted  by  all  who  are  really  desirous  of  ac 
quiring-  trustworthy  information  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats.  During- 
tao  twenty-two  years  which  have  elapsed  from  the  issue  of  tho  first  edition, 
the  improvements  introduced  in  tho  construction  of  tho  steam  engine  have 
been  both  numerous  and  important,  and  of  these  Mr.  Bourne  has  taken  caro 
to  point  out  the  more  prominent,  and  to  furnish  tho  reader  with  such  infor 
mation  as  shall  enable  him  readily  to  judge  of  their  relative  value.  This  edi 
tion  has  been  thoroughly  modernized,  and  made  to  accord  with  the  opinions 
and  practice  of  the  more  successful  engineers  of  the  present  day.  All  that 
the  book  professes  to  give  is  given  with  ability  and  evident  care.  The  scien 
tific  principles  which  are  permanent  are  admirably  explained,  and  reference 
is  made  to  many  of  the  more  valuable  of  the  recently  introduced  engines.  To 
express  an  opinion  of  the  value  and  utility  of  such  a  work  as  The  Artisan 
Club's  Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,  which  has  passed  through  eight  editions 
already,  would  bo  superfluous ;  but  it  may  be  safely  stated  that  the  work  is 
worthy  the  attentive  study  of  all  cither  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  steam 
engines  or  interested  in  economizing  the  use  of  steam. — Mining  Journal. 


Islierwood's  Engineering  Precedents. 

Two  Vols.  in  One.     8vo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

ENGINEEEING  PEECEDENTS  FOE  STEAM  MACHINEEY. 

Arranged  in  the  most  practical  and  useful  manner  for  Engineers. 
By  B.  F.  ISHERWOOD,  Civil  Engineer,  U.  S.  Navy.     With  illus- 


SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 


Ward's  Steam  for  the  Million. 

New  and  Revised  Edition. 

Svo.  Cloth.     $1.00. 

STEAM  FOE  THE  MILLION.  A  Popular  Treatise  on  Steam 
and  its  Application  to  the  Useful  Arts,  especially  to  Naviga 
tion.  By  J.  H.  WARD,  Commander  U.  S.  Navy.  New  and  re 
vised  edition.  . 

A  most  excellent  work  for  the  young  engineer  and  general  reader.  Many 
facts  relating  to  the  management  of  the  boiler  and  engine  are  set  forth  with  a 
simplicity  of  language  and  perfection  of  detail  that  bring  the  subject  homo 
to  the  reader. — American  Engineer. 


Walker's  Screw  Propulsion. 

8vo.     Cloth.     73  cents. 

NOTES  ON  SCEEW  PROPULSION,  its  Eise  and  History.     By 
Capt.  W.  H.  WALKEK,  U.  S.  Navy. 

Commander  Walker's  book  contains  an  immense  amount  of  concise  practi 
cal  data,  and  every  item  of  information  recorded  fully  proves  that  the  various 
points  bearing  upon  it  have  been  well  considered  previously  to  expressing  aa 
opinion. — London  joining  Journal. 


Page's  Earth's  Crust. 

ISmo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

THE  EAETH'S  CEUST :    a    Handy    Outline    of   Geology.      By 
DAVID  PAGE. 

"  Such  a  work  as  this  -was  much  wanted — a  work  giving  in  clear  and  intel 
ligible  outline  the  leading  facts  of  the  science,  without  amplification  or  irk 
some  details.  It  is  admirable  in  arrangement,  and  clear  and  easy,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  forcible  in  style.  It  will  lead,  we  hope,  to  the  introduction  of 
Geology  into  many  schools  that  have  neither  time  nor  room  for  the  study  of 
large  treatises." — Tlie  Museum. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRANU.  31 

Rogers'  Geology  of  Pennsylvania. 

3  Vols.  4to,  with  Portfolio  of  Maps.     Cloth.     $30.00. 

THE  GEOLOGY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA.  A  Government  Sur 
vey.  With  a  general  view  of  the  Geology  of  the  United  States, 
Essays  on  the  Coal  Formation  and  its  Fossils,  and  a  description 
of  the  Coal  Fields  of  North  America  and  Great  Britain.  By 
HENRY  DAHWIN  EOGERS,  Late  State  Geologist  of  Pennsylvania. 
Splendidly  illustrated  with  Plates  and  Engravings  in  the  Text. 

It  certainly  should  be  in  every  public  library  throughout  the  country,  and 
likewise  in  the  possession  of  all  students  of  Geology.  After  the  final  sale  of 
these  copies,  the  work  will,  of  course,  become  more  valuable. 

The  work  for  the  last  five  years  has  been  entirely  out  of  the  market,  but  a 
few  copies  that  remained  in  the  hands  of  Prof.  Rogers,  in  Scotland,  at  the 
time  of  his  death,  are  now  offered  to  the  public,  at  a  price  which  is  even, 
below  what  it  was  originally  sold  for  when  first  published. 


Morfit  on  Pure  Fertilizers. 

With  28  Illustrative  Plates.     8vo.     Cloth.     $20.00. 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  PURE   FERTILIZERS,  and 

the  Chemical  Conversion  of  Rock  Guanos,  Manlstones,  Coprolites, 
and  the  Crude  Phosphates  of  Lime  and  Alumina  Generally,  into 
various  Valuable  Products.  By  CAMPBELL  MORFIT,  M.D.,  F.C.S. 


Sweet's  Report  on  Coal. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

SPECIAL  REPORT  ON  COAL ;  showing  its  Distribution,  Classi 
fication,  and  Cost  delivered  over  different  routes  to  various  points 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  the  principal  cities  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast.  By  S.  H.  SWEET.  With  maps. 


Colbnrn's  Gas  Works  of  London. 

12mo.      Boards.     60  cents. 
GAS  WORKS  OF  LONDON.     By  ZERAH  COLBUKN. 


32  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

The  Useful  Metals  and  their  Alloys ; 
ScofFren,  Truran,  and  others. 

Fifth  Edition. 

8vo.     Half  calf.     $3.75. 

THE  USEFUL  METALS  AND  THEIR  ALLOYS,  including 
MINING  VENTILATION,  MINING  JURISPRUDENCE 
AND  METALLURGIO  CHEMISTRY  employed  in  the  conver 
sion  of  IRON,  COPPER,  TIN,  ZINC,  ANTIMONY,  AND 
LEAD  ORES,  with  their  applications  to  THE  INDUSTRIAL 
ARTS.  By  JOHN  SCOFFREN,  WILLIAM  TRURAN,  WILLIAM  CLAY, 
ROBERT  OXLAND,  WILLIAM  FAIRBAIRN,  W.  C.  AITKIN,  and  WIL 
LIAM  YOSE  PlCKETT. 


Collins1  Useful  Alloys. 

18mo.     Flexible.      75  cents. 

THE  PRIYATE  BOOK  OF  USEFUL  ALLOYS  and  Memo 
randa  for  Goldsmiths,  Jewellers,  etc.  By  JAMES  E.  COLLINS 

This  little  book  is  compiled  from,  notes  made  by  the  Author  from  the 
papers  of  one  of  the  largest  and  most  eminent  Manufacturing  Goldsmiths  and 
Jewellers  in  this  country,  and  as  the  firm  is  now  no  longer  in  existence,  and  the 
Author  is  at  present  engaged  in  some  other  undertaking,  he  now  offers  to  the 
public  the  benefit  of  his  experience,  and  in  so  doing  he  begs  to  state  that  sill 
the  alloys,  etc.,  given  in  these  pages  may  be  confidently  relied  on  as  being 
thoroughly  practicable. 

The  Memoranda  and  Receipts  throughout  this  book  are  also  compiled 
from  practice,  and  will  no  doubt  be  found,  useful  to  the  practical  jeweller. 
—Shirley,  July,  1871. 

Joynson  s  Metals  Used  in  Construction. 

12mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

THE  METALS  USED  IN  CONSTRUCTION:  Iron,  Steel, 
Bessemer  Metal,  etc.,  etc.  By  FRANCIS  HERBERT  JOYNSON.  Il 
lustrated. 

"  In  the  interests  of  practical  science,  we  are  bound  to  notice  this  work  ; 
and  to  those  who  wish  further  information,  we  should  say,  buy  it ;  and  the 
outlay,  we  honestly  believe,  will  be  considered  well  spent."  —  Scientific 
Review, 


D.    VAN  NOtiTllAND.  33 

Holley's  Ordnance  and  Armor. 

493  Engravings.     Half  Roan,  $10.00.     Half  Russia,  $12.00. 

A  TEEATISE  ON  OBDNANCE  AND  AKMOR— Embracing 
Descriptions,  Discussions,  and  Professional  Opinions  concerning 
the  MATERIAL,  FABRICATION,  Requirements,  Capabilities,  and  En 
durance  of  European  and  American  Guns,  for  Naval,  Sea  Coast, 
and  Iron-clad  Warfare,  and  their  RIFLING,  PROJECTILES,  and 
BREECH-LOADING;  also,  Results  of  Experiments  against  Armor, 
from  Official  Records,  with  an  Appendix  referring  to  Gun-Co tton, 
Hooped  Guns,  etc.,  etc.  By  ALEXANDER  L.  HOLLEY,  B.  P.  948 
pages,  493  Engravings,  and  147  Tables  of  Results,  etc. 

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. — Standard  Guns  and  their  Fabrication  Described:  Section  1. 
Hooped  Guns ;  Section  2.  Solid  "Wrought  Iron  Guns ;  Section  3.  Solid  Steel 
Guns;  Section  4.  Cast-Iron  Guns.  CH AFTER  II. — The  Requirements  of  Guns, 
Armor:  Section  1.  The  Work  to  be  done;  Section  2.  Heavy  Shot  at  Low  Ve 
locities  ;  Section  3.  Small  Shot  at  High  Velocities ;  Section  4.  The  two  Sys 
tems  Combined ;  Section  5.  Breaching  Masonry.  CHAPTER  III. — The  Strains 
and  Structure  of  Guns:  Section  1.  Resistance  to  Elastic  Pressure;  Section  2. 
The  Effects  of  Vibration;  Section  3.  The  Effects  of  Heat.  On  AFTER  IV.— 
Cannon  Metals  and  Processes  of  Fabrication:  Section  1.  Elasticity  and  Ductil 
ity;  Section  2.  Cast-Iron;  Section  3.  "Wrought  Iron;  Section  4.  Steel;  Sec 
tion  5.  Bronze ;  Section  6.  Other  Alloys.  CHAPTER  V. — Rifling  and  Projec 
tiles  ;  Standard  Forms  and  Practice  Described ;  Early  Experiments ;  The 
Centring  System;  The  Compressing  System;  The  Expansion  System;  Armor 
Punching  Projectiles ;  Shells  for  Molten  Metal ;  Competitive  Trial  of  Rifled 
Guns,  18G2  ;  Duty  of  Rifled  Guns:  General  Uses,  Accuracy,  Range, Velocity, 
Strain,  Liability  of  Projectile  to  Injury ;  Firing  Spherical  Shot  from  Rifled 
Guns;  Material  for  Armor-Punching  Projectiles;  Shape  of  Armor-Punching 
Projectiles;  Capacity  and  Destructiveness  of  Shells;  Elongated  Shot  from 
Smooth  Bores;  Conclusions;  Velocity  of  Projectiles  i Table  .  CHAPTER  VI.— 
Breech-Loading  Advantages  and  Defects  of  the  System ;  Rapid  Firing  and 
Cooling  Guns  by  Machinery ;  Standard  Breech-Loaders  Described.  Part  Sec 
ond  :  Experiments  against  Armor ;  Account  of  Experiments  from  Official 
Records  in  Chronological  Order.  APPENDIX. — Report  on  the  Application  of 
Gun-Cotton  to  "Warlike  Purposes — British  Association,  1863 ;  Manufacture  and 
Experiments  in  England ;  Guns  Hooped  with  Initial  Tension — History;  How 
Guns  Burst,  by  Wiard,  Lyman's  Accelerating  Gun;  Endurance  of  Parrott 
and  "Whitworth  Guns  at  Charleston  ;  Hooping  old  United  States  Cast-Iron 
Guns  ;  Endurance  and  Accuracy  of  the  Armstrong  600-po under;  Competitive 


34          SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  MY 

Peirce's  Analytic  Mechanics. 

4to.     Cloth.     $10.00. 

SYSTEM:  OF  ANALYTIC  MECHANICS.  Physical  and  Celestial 

Mechanics.  By  BENJAMIN  PEIRCE,  Perkins  Professor  of  Astronomy 
and  Mathematics  in  Harvard  University,  and  Consulting  As 
tronomer  of  the  American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac. 
Developed  in  four  systems  of  Analytic  Mechanics,  Celestial 
Mechanics,  Potential  Physics,  and  Analytic  Morphology. 

"  I  have  re-examined  the  memoirs  of  the  great  geometers,  and  have  striven 
to  consolidate  their  latest  researches  and  their  most  exalted  forms  of  thought 
into  a  consistent  and  uniform  treatise.  If  I  have  hereby  succeeded  in  open 
ing  to  the  students  of  my  country  a  readier  access  to  these  choice  jewels  of 
intellect ;  if  their  brilliancy  is  not  impaired  in  this  attempt  to  reset  them ;  if, 
in  their  own  constellation,  they  illustrate  each  other,  and  concentrate 
a  stronger  light  upon  the  names  of  their  discoverers  ,  and,  still  more,  if  any 
gem  which  I  may  have  presumed  to  add  is  not  wholly  lustreless  in  the  collec 
tion,  I  shall  feel  that  my  work  has  not  been  in  vain."— Extract  from  the  Pre 
face. 

Hurt's  Key  to  Solar  Compass. 

Second  Edition. 

Pocket  Book  Form.     Tuck.     $2.50. 

KEY  TO  THE  SOLAR  COMPASS,  and  Surveyor's  Companion ; 
comprising  all  the  Rules  necessary  for  use  in  the  field ;  also, 
Description  of  the  Linear  Surveys  and  Public  Land  System  of 
the  United  States,  Notes  on  the  Barometer,  Suggestions  for  an 
outfit  for  a  Survey  of  four  months,  etc.,  etc.,  etc.  By  W.  A. 
BUKT,  U.  S.  Deputy  Surveyor.  Second  edition. 


Chauvenet's  Lunar  Distances. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

NEW  METHOD  OF  CORRECTING  LUNAR  DISTANCES, 
and  Improved  Method  of  Finding  the  Error  and  Rate  of  a  Chro 
nometer,  by  equal  altitudes.  By  WM.  CHAUVENET,  LL.D.,  Chan 
cellor  of  Washington  University  of  St.  Louis. 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND.  35 


Jeffers'  Nautical  Surveying. 

Illustrated  with  9  Copperplates  and  31  Wood-cut  Illustrations.     8vo. 
Cloth.      $5.00. 

NAUTICAL  SURVEYING.  By  WILLIAM' N.  JEFFEES,  Captain 
U.  S.  Navy. 

Many  books  have  been  written  on  each  of  the  subjects  treated  of  in  the 
sixteen  chapters  of  this  work;  and,  to  obtain  a  complete  knowledge  of 
geodetic  surveying  requires  a  profound  study  of  the  whole  range  of  mathe 
matical  and  physical  sciences ;  but  a  year  of  preparation  should  render  any- 
intelligent  officer  competent  to  conduct  a  nautical  survey. 

CONTENTS. — Chapter  I.  Formulae  and  Constants  Useful  in  Surveying 
II.  Distinctive  Character  of  Surveys.  III.  Hydrographic  Surveying  under 
Sail ;  or,  Running  Survey.  IV.  Hydrographic  Surveying  of  Boats ;  or,  Har 
bor  Survey.  V.  Tides — Definition  of  Tidal  Phenomena — Tidal  Observations. 
VI.  Measurement  of  Bases — Appropriate  and  Direct.  VII.  Measurement  of 
the  Angles  of  Triangles — Azimuths— Astronomical  Bearings.  VIII.  Correc 
tions  to  be  Applied  to  the  Observed  Angles.  IX.  Levelling — Difference  of 
Level.  X.  Computation  of  the  Sides  of  the  Triangulation — The  Three-point 
Problem.  XI.  Determination  of  the  Geodetic  Latitudes,  Longitudes,  and 
Azimuths,  of  Points  of  a  Triangulation.  XII.  Summary  of  Subjects  treated 
of  in  preceding  Chapters — Examples  of  Computation  by  various  Formulae. 
XIII.  Projection  of  Charts  and  Plans.  XIV.  Astronomical  Determination  of 
Latitude  and  Longitude.  XV.  Magnetic  Observations.  XVI.  Deep  Sea 
Soundings.  XVII.  Tables  for  Ascertaining  Distances  at  Sea,  and  a  full 
Index. 

List  of  Plates. 

Plate  I.  Diagram  Illustrative  of  the  Triangulation.  II.  Specimen  Page 
of  Field  Book.  III.  Running  Survey  of  i.  Coast.  IV.  Example  of  a  Running 
Survey  from  Belcher.  V.  Flying  Survey  of  an  Island.  VI.  Survey  of  a 
Shoal.  VII.  Boat  Survey  of  a  River.  VIII.  Three-Point  Problem.  IX. 
Triangulation. 

Coffin's  Navigation. 

Fifth  Edition. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $3.50. 

NAVIGATION  AND  NAUTICAL  ASTRONOMY.  Prepared 
for  the  use  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy.  By  J.  H.  C.  COFFIN, 
Prof,  of  Astronomy,  Navigation  and  Surveying,  with  52  wood 
cut  illustrations. 


SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Olark's  Theoretical  Navigation. 

8vo.     Cloth. 


tHEOKETICAL  NAVIGATION  AND  NAUTICAL  ASTRON- 
OMY.  By  LEWIS  CLARK,  Lieut.-Commander,  IT.  S.  Navy.  Il 
lustrated  with  41  Wood-cuts,  including  the  Vernier. 

Prepared  for  Use  at  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy. 


The  Plane  Table. 

Illustrated.     8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

tTS  USES  IN  TOPOGRAPHICAL  SURVEYING.     From  the 
Papers  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey. 

This  work  gives  a  description  of  the  Plane  Table  employed  at  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey  Office,  and  the  manner  of  using  it. 


Pook  on  Shipbuilding. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

METHOD  OF  COMPARING  THE  LINES  AND  DRAUGHT 
ING  VESSELS  PROPELLED  BY  SAIL  OR  STEAM,  in 
cluding  a  Chapter  on  Laying  off  on  the  Mould-Loft  Floor.  By 
SAMUEL  M.  POOK,  Naval  Constructor.  1  vol.,  8vo.  With  illus 
trations.  Cloth.  $5.00. 


Brunnow's  Spherical  Astronomy. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $6.50. 

SPHERICAL  ASTRONOMY.     By  F.  BRUNNOW,  Ph.  Dr.    Trans 
lated  by  the  Author  from  the  Second  German  edition. 


1).  VAN  NOSTRAND.  37 

Van  Buren's  Formulas. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

INVESTIGATIONS  OF  FORMULAS,  for  the  Strength  of  the 
Iron  Parts  of  Steam  Machinery.  By  J.  D.  YAN  BUREN,  Jr.,  C.  E. 
Illustrated. 

This  is  an  analytical  discussion  of  the  formulce  employed  by  mechanic?.! 
engineers  in  determining1  the  rupturing"  or  crippling  pressure  in  the  different 
parts  of  a  machine.  The  formulae  are  founded  upon  the  principle,  that  the 
different  parts  of  a  machine  should  be  equally  strong,  and  are  developed  in 
reference  to  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  material  in  order  to  leave  the  choice 
of  a  factor  of  safety  to  the  judgment  of  the  designer.  —Silliman's  Journal. 


Joynson  on  Machine  Gearing. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

THE  MECHANIC'S  AND  STUDENT'S  GUIDE  in  the  Design 
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and  Curved  Surfaces  ;  with  Practical  Rules  and  Details.  Edited 
by  FRANCIS  HERBERT  JOYNSON.  Illustrated  with  18  folded 
plates. 

"  The  aim  of  this  work  is  to  be  a  guide  to  mechanics  in  the  designing-  and 
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plainly  and  sensibly  written,  and  profusely  illustrated." — Sunday  Times. 


Barnard's  Report,  Paris  Exposition, 

1867. 

Illustrated.     8vo.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

REPORT  ON  MACHINERY  AND  PROCESSES  ON  THE 
INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  AND  APPARATUS  OF  THE  EXACT 
SCIENCES.  By  F.  A.  P.  BARNARD,  LL.D.— Paris  Universal 
Exposition,  1867. 

"  We  have  in  this  volume  the  results  of  Dr.  Barnard's  study  of  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1867,  in  the  form  of  an  official  Report  of  the  Government.  It 
is  the  most  exhaustive  treatise  upon  modern  inventions  that  has  appeared 
since  the  Universal  Exhibition  of  1851,  and  we  doubt  if  anything-  equal  to  it 
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38  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Engineering  Facts  and  Figures. 

18mo.     Cloth.     $2.50  per  Volume. 

AN  ANNUAL  EEGISTEE  OF  PEOGEESS  IN  MECHANI 
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1863-64-65-66-67-68.  Fully  illustrated.  6  volumes. 

Each  volume  sold  separately. 


Beckwith's  Pottery. 

8vo.     Paper.     60  cents. 

OBSEEVATIONS  ON  THE  MATEEIALS  and  Manufacture  of 
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Tiles,  with  Eemarks  on  the  Products  exhibited  at  the  London 
International  Exhibition,  1871.  By  AETHTJR  BECK  WITH,  Civil 
Engineer. 

"  Everything  is  noticed  in  this  hook  which  comes  under  the  head  of  Pot 
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all  take  in  such  manufactures,  the  work  will  be  of  considerable  value  to 
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Dodd's  Dictionary  of  Manufactures,  etc. 

lamo.     (Jioch.     $2.00. 

DICTIONARY  OF  MANUFACTUEES,   MINING,   MACHIN- 
EEY,  AND  THE  INDUSTEIAL  AETS.     By  GEORGE 


This  work,  a  small  book  on  a  great  subject,  treats,  in  alphabetical  ar 
rangement,  of  those  numerous  matters  which  come  generally  within  the  range 
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cinctly  noticed  in  connection  with  the  processes  which  they  undergo,  but  not 
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13  indicated  in  various  ways. 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND.  39 

Stuart's  Civil  and  Military  Engineer 
ing  of  America. 

8vo.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

THE  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  ENGINEERS  OF  AMERICA. 
By  General  CHARLES  B.  STUART,  Author  of  "  Naval  Dry  Docks 
of  the  United  States,"  etc.,  etc.  Embellished  with  nine  finely 
executed  portraits  on  steel  of  eminent  engineers,  and  illustrated 
by  engravings  of  some  of  the  most  important  and  original  works 
constructed  in  America. 

Containing  sketches  of  the  Life  and  "Works  of  Major  Andrew  Ellicott, 
James  Geddes  (with  Portrait^,  Benjamin  Wright  (with  Portrait),  Canvas^ 
White  (with  Portrait),  David  Stanhope  Bates,  Nathan  S.  Roberts,  Gridley 
Bryant  (with  Portrait),  General  Joseph  G.  Swift,  Jesse  L.  Williams  (with 
Portrait),  Colonel  William  McRee,  Samuel  H.  Kneass,  Captain  John  Childe 
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trait),  Jonathan  Knight,  Benjamin  H.  Latrobe  (with  Portrait),  Colonel  Char 
les  Ellet,  Jr.  '.with  Portrait),  Samuel  Forrer,  William  Stuart  Watson,  John 
A.  Roebling. 


Alexander's  Dictionary  of  Weights 
and  Measures. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $3.50. 

UNIVERSAL  DICTIONAEY  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEAS 
URES,  Ancient  and  Modern,  reduced  to  the  standards  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  By  J.  H.  ALEXANDER.  New  edition. 
1vol. 

"  As  a  standard  work  of  reference,  this  book  should  be  in  every  library  ;  it 
is  one  which  we  have  long  wanted,  and  it  will  save  much  trouble  and  re 
search." — Scientific  American. 


Gonge  on  Ventilation. 

Third  Edition  Enlarged. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

NEW  SYSTEM  OF  VENTILATION,  which  has  been  thoroughly 
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HENRY  A.  GOUGE,  with  many  illustrations. 


40          SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Saeltzer's  Acoustics. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

TREATISE  ON  ACOUSTICS  in  Connection  with  Ventilation. 
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SAELTZER. 

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paid.  The  author's  theory  is,  that,  by  bestowing-  proper  care  upon  the  point 
of  Acoustics,  the  requisite  ventilation  will  be  obtained,  and  vice  versa. — 
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Myer's  Manual  of  Signals. 

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MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS,  for  the  Use  of  Signal  Officers  in  the 
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D.   VAN  NOSTEAND.  41 

Hunt's  Designs  for  Central  Park 
Gate-ways. 

4to.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

DESIGNS  FOR  THE  GATEWAYS  OF  THE  SOUTHERN 
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Pickert  and  Metcalf  s  Art  of  Graining. 

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THE  ART  OF  GRAINING.  How  Acquired  and  How  Produced, 
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Tinted  paper. 

The  authors  present  here  the  result  of  long  experience  in  the  practice  of 
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REPORT  UPON  THE  PRECIOUS  METALS  :  Being  Statisti 
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Clevenger's  Surveying. 

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veyor. 

"  The  reputation  of  the  author  as  a  surveyor  guarantees  an  exhaustive 
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D.  VAN  NOSTRAND.  43 


SILVER  MINING  REGIONS  OF  COLORADO,  with  some 
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